UNIVERSITY of MICHIGAN SIGMA NU FRATERNITY HOUSE INTERIOR 6 X 8 PHOTOS 1912 For Sale

UNIVERSITY of MICHIGAN SIGMA NU FRATERNITY HOUSE INTERIOR 6 X 8 PHOTOS from 1912
THESE ARE IN GOOD SHAPE SOME WEAR FROM HANDLING AND RESIDUE ON THE BACK FROM OLD University of Michigan (U-M, UMich, or Michigan) is a public research university in Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States. Founded in 1817, it is the oldest institution of higher education in the state. The University of Michigan is one of the earliest American research universities and is a founding member of the Association of American Universities.
The university enrolls more than 52,000 students. UMich is classified as an \"R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity\" by the Carnegie Classification.[12] It consists of 19 schools and colleges, offers more than 280 degree programs.[13][14] The university is accredited by the Higher Learning Commission. In 2021, it ranked third among American universities in research expenditures according to the National Science Foundation.
The campus, comparable in scale to a midsize city, spans 3,177 acres (12.86 km2). It encompasses Michigan Stadium, which is the largest stadium in the United States, as well as the Western Hemisphere, and ranks third globally. The University of Michigan\'s athletic teams, including 13 men\'s teams and 14 women\'s teams competing in intercollegiate sports, are collectively known as the Wolverines. They compete in NCAA Division I (FBS) as a member of the Big Ten Conference. Between 1900 and 2022, athletes from the university earned a total of 185 medals at the Olympic Games, including 86 gold.[15]
HistoryMain article: History of the University of MichiganThe Catholepistemiad (1817–1821)The University of Michigan traces its origins to August 26, 1817,[16][17] when it was established in the Territory of Michigan as the Catholepistemiad or University of Michigania through a legislative act signed by acting governor and secretary William Woodbridge, presiding judge Augustus B. Woodward of the Territorial Supreme Court, and judge John Griffin.[18] In 1821, by a new enactment, the university itself was created as a \"body politic and corporate\",[19] maintaining its corporate status through various modifications to its charter.[20] The term \"Catholepistemiad,\" a neologism derived from a blend of Greek and Latin roots, can be loosely translated as \"School of Universal Knowledge\".[21] This corporation was modeled after the Imperial University of France, an entity established by Napoleon I a decade prior,[22][23] and included an array of schools and libraries under a single administration,[24] with the authority to establish additional schools across the territory.[23] It wasn\'t until Michigan became a state in 1837 that the corporation focused solely on higher education.[22]First Annual Report of the University of Michigania, authored by its first president John Monteith, November 16, 1818Promptly after the Territory of Michigan\'s formation in 1805, prominent citizens acknowledged the need for a college.[25] In 1806, Gabriel Richard, who presided over several schools in the Town of Detroit, first petitioned for land to found a college.[26][27] Although Governor William Hull and Woodward promulgated an act in 1809 to establish public school districts, this preliminary endeavor yielded negligible results.[28] Woodward, aspiring to categorize knowledge (which he termed \"encathol epistemia\"), discussed this with Thomas Jefferson in 1814.[29] In 1817, Woodward drafted a territorial act for the Catholepistemiad, or University of Michigania, which included thirteen professorships, or didaxiim.[30] The act was enacted on August 26, 1817, with Richard appointed vice president and John Monteith as president. Woodward sought funding from the Zion Masonic Lodge, which contributed $250, leading to a total of $5,000 raised for the university.[31][32] The cornerstone for the first schoolhouse, situated near the intersection of Bates Street and Congress Street in Detroit, was laid on September 24, 1817, and by the following year, a Lancasterian school, taught by Lemuel Shattuck, and a classical academy were operational.[33] Additional schools were established in Monroe and Mackinaw by the end of September 1817.[20] In 1821, a new act placed the corporation under the control of a board of trustees.[34] Monteith, no longer president, joined the board, and Richard served on the board until his death in 1832.[35] The trustees continued to manage the schools and classical academy, but established no new schools.[36] By 1827, all schools had closed, and the Detroit schoolhouse was leased to private teachers.[36]
Early years (1837–1851)
Alexander J. Davis\'s original designs for the university featured the Gothic Revival style. He is generally credited with coining the term \"Collegiate Gothic\"In 1837, following Michigan\'s admission to the Union, its constitution enabled the appointive regents to oversee university operations directly alongside professors, without the need for a president.[22] The regents met in Ann Arbor and accepted the town\'s proposal for the university to relocate,[37][38] based on a 40 acres (16 ha) grant from the Treaty of Fort Meigs[39][40] on Henry Rumsey\'s farmland.[41] Alexander Jackson Davis devised the original campus plan in Gothic Revival style,[42] and the regents unanimously approved his proposal;[43] however, the plan was abandoned due to financial constraints resulting from the Panic of 1837.[44][45] In 1841, Mason Hall, the first campus building, was completed, followed by the construction of South College, an identical building to the south, in 1849, leaving a gap for a future grand centerpiece.[43]
From top to bottom: a colored elevation of Mason Hall (1841–1950), the first instructional building on the Ann Arbor campus. Its design inspired North Hall (1851) in Madison, Wisconsin[46]; University of Michigan (1855) by Jasper Francis CropseyAsa Gray was appointed the first professor following the university\'s move to Ann Arbor in 1837,[47][48][49][50][51] alongside early faculty members Douglass Houghton and Andrew Ten Brook.[51][52] The first classes in Ann Arbor were held in 1841, with six freshmen and a sophomore taught by two professors, Joseph Whiting and George Palmer Williams.[53][54] In the first commencement of 1845, eleven graduates, including Judson Dwight Collins, were awarded a Bachelor of Arts degree.[55] In subsequent years, the regents established branches across the state as preparatory schools for the university,[56] starting with Pontiac and followed by Kalamazoo, Detroit, Niles, Tecumseh, White Pigeon, and Romeo.[56] However, they struggled to enroll students and some merged with local colleges.[56] Kalamazoo College was the Kalamazoo Branch of the University of Michigan from 1840 to 1850.[56] Furthermore, the university struggled with issues due to its regents\' dependence on the legislature from 1837 to 1850.[57][58] Despite several attempts to gain independence, progress was slow until the late 1840s, when regents gained leverage, supported by Michigan citizens.[57] This led to a revision of the organic act on April 8, 1851, which freed the university from legislative control, changed the regent position from appointed to elected, and established a president selected by the regents.[57]
1851 to 1900Henry Philip Tappan became the university\'s first president in 1852, with the ambition to shape the institution as a model for future universities. During his decade of service, he overhauled the curriculum,[59] expanded the library and museum collections,[59] established the law school,[22] and supervised the construction of the Detroit Observatory.[59] He secularized faculty appointments by prioritizing merit in selections,[59] breaking away from the retrograde tradition of regents distributing positions among Protestant denominations.[59] In 1855, Michigan became the second university in the country to issue Bachelor of Science degrees.[60] The following year, the country\'s first chemical laboratory was built on campus, specifically designed for chemistry education, providing additional space for classes and laboratories.[61] Tappan\'s tenure also saw the creation of the Michigan Glee Club, the oldest student organization at the university, and the publication of the first student newspaper, The Peninsular Phoenix and Gazetteer, in 1857.[62] Despite these accomplishments, Tappan\'s 11-year presidency was marked by considerable tension.[59] His impartial stance on religion faced backlash during a time of heightened religious fervor.[59] Due to changes in the Board of Regents and discontent with his administration, he was forced to resign in 1863.[59]Mason Hall, with a statue of Benjamin Franklin in front. Photograph taken prior to 1870In 1863, Erastus Otis Haven took office as president, having been a professor at the time and needing to prove his right for the presidency.[63] The campus was divided by conflicting views among students, faculty, and regents regarding Tappan\'s restoration, the homeopathy crisis, and the Civil War.[63] Haven\'s administration faced routine administrative difficulties and struggled to garner support for increased state aid, despite achieving modest gains.[63] The university, which had received a fixed $15,000 since 1869, still required additional funding.[63] Frustrated, Haven resigned in 1869 to become president of Northwestern, a Methodist institution, a move that sectarians viewed as a setback for secular colleges.[63] The presidency remained vacant from 1869 to 1871, with Professor Henry Simmons Frieze serving as acting president.[64] During this period, the university raised funds for University Hall, overhauled admissions with a diploma system, and introduced coeducation.[64] Women were first admitted in 1870,[65] although Alice Robinson Boise Wood was the first woman to attend classes in 1866.[66] In 1870, Gabriel Franklin Hargo graduated from the law school as the second African American to graduate from a law school in the United States.[67] In 1871, Sarah Killgore became the first woman to graduate from law school and be admitted to the bar of any state in the United States.[68] Frieze, a champion of music education, also established the University Musical Society.[64] By the late 1860s, the university had become one of the largest in the nation, alongside Harvard in Cambridge.[69] However, it faced ongoing issues with student discipline, including class rushes, instances of hazing, and rowdiness in chapel.[70][64] Frieze attributed these problems to a lack of centralized faculty control.[64]University Hall (center, 1872–1950), flanked by Mason Hall (left, 1841–1950) and South College (right, 1849–1950), was located partly on the grounds of present-day Angell HallJames Burrill Angell became president in 1871 and would remain in the post for nearly four decades.[71] His tenure would be remembered as the most successful in the university\'s history.[71] Tappan\'s reforms in the 1850s set the university on a path to becoming an elite institution, but it was Angell who completed that transformation.[71] Shortly after Angell\'s arrival, University Hall was completed at vast expense; it would remain the university\'s major academic building right up until the 1950s.[71] During his presidency, Angell restored campus discipline,[70][71] raised entrance and graduation requirements,[71] and persuaded the legislature to increase state aid.[71] Angell\'s tenure saw the addition of many extracurricular activities, including the intercollegiate football team.[71] Though a reformer, Angell was not authoritarian; he encouraged open debate and aimed for near-unanimous agreement before implementing changes, rather than pushing through with only a narrow majority.[71] This approach enabled him to address knotty issues on campus, including the long-standing homeopathy problem.[71] Angell transformed the curriculum to focus on electives, expanding course offerings.[70] That led to a faculty of great minds in many fields, from John Dewey in philosophy to Frederick George Novy in bacteriology.[72] In 1875, the university founded the College of Dental Surgery, followed by the establishment of the College of Pharmacy by Albert B. Prescott in 1876. That year, the university awarded its first Doctor of Philosophy degrees: to Victor C. Vaughan in chemistry and William E. Smith in zoology.[73][25] They were among the first doctoral degrees to be conferred in the nation.[73] The university remained the only institution in the state to grant PhD degrees until the late 1940s.[74]
\"Stand up for America; devote your life to its cause; love your homes, and prove as worthy of our cherished free institutions as they are worthy of your allegiance and service. Let not the high standard of National Honor, raised by the fathers, be lowered by their sons. Let learning, liberty and law be exalted and enthroned.\"
William McKinley, speaking to the first National Convention of the College Republicans in Newberry Hall in 1892[75]
Literary Class of 1880 (includes Mary Henrietta Graham, the first African American woman graduate of the University of Michigan)With his presidency, Angell focused the university on preparing a new generation of statesmen for public service.[71] Angell himself was frequently called upon by the White House for diplomatic missions.[71] In 1880, President Rutherford Hayes appointed him as Minister to China, where he successfully negotiated an immigration treaty that facilitated foreign student enrollment.[71] Later, in 1887, 1896, and 1897, President Grover Cleveland appointed him to fisheries and waterways commissions.[71] That same year, President William McKinley named him Envoy Extraordinary to Turkey.[71] By the late 19th century, the university had gained an international reputation, in large part due to Angell\'s diplomatic efforts.[71] During this period, over eighty subjects of the Emperor of Japan were sent to Ann Arbor to study law as part of the opening of that empire to external influence.[76] The university also played a key role in developing the Philippine education, legal, and public health systems during American colonization, largely due to the contributions of Michigan alumni like Dean Conant Worcester and George A. Malcolm.[77] Angell retired in 1909, and seven years later, he died in the President\'s House, which had been his home for forty-five years.[71] His successor, Harry Burns Hutchins, who was once his student, would lead the university through World War I and the Great Influenza epidemic.[71]
1900 to 1950
Law Quadrangle, ca. 1930sIn 1910, Harry Burns Hutchins assumed the presidency, becoming the first alumnus to hold that position.[78] He had spent seven years in Ithaca, New York, where he was called by Andrew Dickson White and Charles Kendall Adams to establish the Cornell Law School.[78] Hutchins then became the dean of the law school at his alma mater, where he introduced the case method of instruction.[78] Hutchins was acting president when Angell was absent.[78] During his presidency, Hutchins established the Graduate School,[78] doubled enrollment,[78] and increased the faculty.[78] He secured more state aid and alumni support to fund the university\'s capital needs,[78] including the gothic Law Quadrangle,[79] Martha Cook Building,[80] Hill Auditorium, and Michigan Union, which became campus landmarks. Hutchins enhanced the university health service,[78] but wartime distractions plagued his presidency. The influenza epidemic, which caused student deaths from poor care, deeply troubled him.[78] Well-liked by the regents who encouraged him to remain president, nonetheless, Hutchins retired in 1920.[78]A 1907 postcard depicting college life at Michigan in the early twentieth century, created by F. Earl ChristyThe 1920s at the university were marked by the brief tenures of two presidents, Marion LeRoy Burton and Clarence Cook Little.[81] In 1920, when Burton assumed office, a conference on higher education took place at the university, resulting in the establishment of the Association of Governing Boards of Universities and Colleges.[82] Under his leadership, construction boomed on campus,[82] and enrollments increased,[82] propelled by the prosperous economy of the Roaring Twenties. He initiated the annual honors convocation,[82] introduced the deans\' conference,[82] and increased university income.[82] The proposal for establishing a nonsectarian divinity school on campus came after strong advocacy from Charles Foster Kent and received unanimous backing from nearby churches.[83] The school was short-lived and was quietly shelved in 1927.[83] Burton fell ill in 1924 and died in 1925.[82] In this emergency, President Emeritus Hutchins was called by the regents to assist, with Alfred Henry Lloyd serving as acting president until Little\'s arrival.[82] Clarence Cook Little was elected president in 1925,[84] advocating for individualized education[84] and reforming curricula, particularly for women.[84] Little proposed a curriculum division after two years to address knowledge gaps, leading to the University College proposal, which was ultimately abandoned after his resignation in 1929.[84]H.A. Kramers, second row, sixth left with J. Robert Oppenheimer, second row, fourth left, in a photograph of the Summer Symposium on Theoretical Physics in 1931 at the University of MichiganFollowing Little\'s resignation, Alexander Grant Ruthven, an alumnus, was elected president by unanimous vote.[85] He would lead the university through the Great Depression and World War II.[85] Under Ruthven\'s leadership, the university administration became more decentralized with the creation of the university council, various divisions, and a system of committees.[85] For years, the university was a backwater in theoretical physics. Nonetheless, this changed under department head Harrison McAllister Randall, who brought theorists Samuel Goudsmit, George Uhlenbeck, and Otto Laporte onto the faculty.[86] Goudsmit mentored famous students at the university, including Robert Bacher and Wu Ta-You, the Father of Chinese Physics, who in turn taught Zhu Guangya and two Nobel laureates, Chen Ning Yang and Tsung-Dao Lee. From 1928 to 1941, the Summer Symposium in Theoretical Physics featured renowned physicists like Niels Bohr, Werner Heisenberg, Paul Dirac, and Erwin Schrödinger, with at least fifteen attendees being Nobel laureates or future laureates.[87] Wolfgang Pauli held a visiting professorship at the university in 1931.[88] Stephen Timoshenko created the first U.S. bachelor\'s and doctoral programs in engineering mechanics when he was a faculty professor at the university. In 1948, shortly after World War II, the Michigan Memorial Phoenix Project was established to honor the hundreds of lives lost from the university during the war.[89][22] Funded by numerous contributors, including the Ford Motor Company, the Phoenix Project operated the Ford Nuclear Reactor, which established the nation\'s first academic program in nuclear science and engineering.[90]
1950 to presentFor most of the 19th and early 20th centuries, Michigan stood as the sole university within the state, and its alumni often dominated state politics. However, by the mid-20th century, the landscape began to shift as new universities emerged, many of which were former technical schools, thereby threatening that status quo.[91] When Harlan Hatcher took office as president in 1951, he was entrusted with securing the university\'s preeminence among the nation and world\'s burgeoning research institutions. This marked the beginning of a phase of post-war development, during which Hatcher oversaw the construction of North Campus, the founding of Flint Senior College, and the establishment of the Dearborn Center, both of which have since evolved into full-fledged branch campuses.[92][93] Nonetheless, the tenures of Hatcher and his successor, Robben Wright Fleming, were marked by a sharp rise in campus activism, linked to the Civil Rights Movement and the anti-Vietnam War movement.[92] In 1963, a controversial set of admissions practices collectively known as \'affirmative action\' was introduced.[94] It was a radical measure originated by Hobart Taylor Jr., aimed at boosting Black student enrollment at elite universities.[94] Meanwhile, in 1964, a group of faculty hosted the nation\'s first \"teach-in\" against U.S. foreign policy in Southeast Asia, attended by thousands of students.[95][96] Subsequent sit-ins by campus groups prompted administrative crackdowns, leading to more unrest across the campus.[92] Meanwhile, Hatcher controversially dismissed three professors for their refusal to cooperate with Joseph McCarthy\'s House Un-American Activities Committee during his tenure.[97] Hatcher\'s successor, Robben Wright Fleming guided the university through a turbulent era of activism.[92] In 1969, a year into Fleming\'s tenure, a Marxist militant organization known as the Weather Underground was founded on campus.[98] This group, led by members of the Jesse James Gang, an offshoot of the Students for a Democratic Society, employed militant tactics, including taking hostages.[92] A year later, a strike organized by the Black Action Movement, another radical group, resulted in the university agreeing to several demands for minority support.[99] In 1971, the Spectrum Center was founded as the nation\'s oldest collegiate LGBT student center.[100] Meanwhile, support among students for marijuana legalization was gaining traction on campus, as evidenced by the annual Hash Bash rally that began in 1972.[101] Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, campus unrest began to diminish the university\'s academic standing, which had been ranked among the top five in the nation.[91] That standing started to decline during Fleming\'s tenure. Campus unrest persisted during Harold Tafler Shapiro\'s presidency, which began in 1980, fueled by controversies surrounding the university\'s national defense initiatives and foreign investments.A celebratory dinner for the university\'s matriculating PhD students in 2017President James Duderstadt would succeed Shapiro and remain president until 1996.[102] He supported campus growth and fundraising initiatives. Duderstadt\'s successor, Lee Bollinger, conducted several major construction projects like the School of Social Work building[103] and the Tisch Hall, named in honor of alumnus Preston Robert Tisch.[104] In 2003, the U.S. Supreme Court heard two cases regarding the university\'s affirmative action admissions: Grutter v. Bollinger and Gratz v. Bollinger. In 2002, the university elected its first female president, Mary Sue Coleman, by unanimous vote.[105][106] Throughout her presidency, Michigan\'s endowment saw continued growth, accompanied by a major fundraising drive known as \"The Michigan Difference\".[107] The Coleman\'s administration faced labor disputes with the university\'s labor unions, notably with the Lecturers\' Employees Organization and the Graduate Employees Organization.[108] In the early 2000s, the university faced declining state funding, prompting suggestions for privatization.[109][110] Despite being a state institution de jure, it adopted private funding models.[111] A 2008 legislative panel further recommended converting it to a private institution due to its minimal ties to the state.[112] Mark Schlissel succeeded Coleman in 2014. Before his firing in 2022, Schlissel expanded financial aid offerings,[113] enhanced international engagement,[114] and raised student diversity.[115] He also led initiatives in biosciences[116] and the arts.[117] Schlissel\'s successor, Santa Ono, would serve a short and lackluster tenure amid the national pro-Palestinian before his immediate resignation.[127] The presidency has remained vacant since then, with Domenico Grasso serving as the interim president.[128]
Historical links
University presidents Harry Burns Hutchins, left, and James Burrill Angell, center, with Cornell University founder Andrew Dickson White, right, in a 1900s photographThe founding of the University of Michigan in the 19th century was influenced by the transatlantic Republic of Letters, an intellectual community that spanned Europe and the Americas.[59] Key figures, such as Henry Philip Tappan, were instrumental in aligning the university with the ideals championed by the intellectual community, including liberty, reason, and scientific inquiry.[59] Alumni and faculty from Michigan, like Andrew Dixon White, carried these ideals forward as they shaped other institutions.[129][130] Notably, Cornell alumni David Starr Jordan and John Casper Branner later introduced these concepts to Stanford University in the late 19th century.[129] Early university leaders like James Burrill Angell contributed to establishing other universities by sharing their insights.[71] Alongside Charles William Eliot of Harvard, Andrew D. White of Cornell, and Noah Porter of Yale, Angell was heavily involved in the early period of Johns Hopkins University as an advisor to the trustees and recommended Daniel Coit Gilman as the first president of the wealthy new foundation.[131] Clark Kerr, the first chancellor of the University of California, Berkeley, referred to Michigan as the \"mother of state universities.\"[132]
University of California: had its early planning based upon the University of Michigan.[a][133][134]University of Chicago: Michigan alumnus Robert Ezra Park played a leading role in the development of the Chicago School of sociology. The University of Chicago Laboratory School was founded in 1896 by John Dewey and Calvin Brainerd Cady, who were members of the Michigan faculty.Cornell University: Andrew Dixon White and Charles Kendall Adams, the first and second presidents of Cornell, respectively, were members of the Michigan faculty. Cornell had its Law School founded by Michigan alumni Charles Kendall Adams and Harry Burns Hutchins. Six of the fourteen past presidents of Cornell University have had connections to the University of Michigan. Edmund Ezra Day, the fifth president, was the founding dean of Michigan\'s business school. Frank H. T. Rhodes, the ninth president, spent three years as vice president of academic affairs at Michigan. Martha E. Pollack, the fourteenth president, served as provost at Michigan from 2013 to 2017. Additionally, Jeffrey S. Lehman received his graduate degrees from Michigan.[130]Harvard University: Michigan alumnus Edwin Francis Gay was the founding dean of the Harvard Business School from 1908 to 1919,[135] instrumental in the school\'s planning.Johns Hopkins University: had its pharmacology department established by John Jacob Abel, an alumnus of Michigan.Massachusetts Institute of Technology: had its Media Lab co-founded by Michigan alumnus Jerome Wiesner. Nicholas Negroponte, the co-founder and Chairman Emeritus of the Media Lab, has held a visiting professorship at the University of Michigan.Northwestern University: Michigan alumnus Henry Wade Rogers was instrumental in transforming Northwestern from a small cluster of colleges into a major, nationally recognized university. His wife, Emma Winner Rogers, founded the Northwestern University Settlement Association.[136]Syracuse University: Alexander Winchell and Erastus O. Haven, the first and second chancellors of Syracuse University, respectively, were members of the Michigan faculty.University of Washington: Charles Odegaard, who served as president of the University of Washington from 1958 to 1973 and is credited with elevating its academic standing, was previously the dean of Michigan\'s College of Literature, Science, and the Arts.Wellesley College: Michigan alumna Alice Freeman Palmer, the president of Wellesley College from 1881 to 1887, \"transformed the fledgling school from one devoted to Christian domesticity into one of the nation\'s premier colleges for women.\"[137]Yale University: had its residential college system co-organized by James Rowland Angell, a graduate of Michigan.[138] Michigan alumnus Henry Wade Rogers introduced the \"case system\" and the college degree requirement into the Yale Law School.Campus
This article relies excessively on references to primary sources. Please improve this article by adding secondary or tertiary sources.Find sources: \"University of Michigan\" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (August 2025) (Learn how and when to remove this message)MapWikimedia | © OpenStreetMapUniversity of Michigan Campus Historic buildings Museums Libraries Arts venues Housing and dining Open spaces Sports University of Michigan campus
Lawyers Club (1924), Law QuadrangleThe University of Michigan\'s campus in Ann Arbor is divided into four main areas: the Central Campus area, the North Campus area, the North Medical Campus area, and Ross Athletic Campus area. The campus areas include more than 500 major buildings,[139] with a combined area of more than 37.48 million square feet (860 acres; 3.482 km2).[140] The Central and Athletic Campus areas are contiguous, while the North Campus area is separated from them, primarily by the Huron River.[141] The North Medical Campus area was developed on Plymouth Road, with several university-owned buildings for outpatient care, diagnostics, and outpatient surgery.[142]
All four campus areas are connected by bus services, the majority of which connect the North and Central campus areas. There is a shuttle service connecting the University Hospital, which lies between North and Central campus areas, with other medical facilities throughout northeastern Ann Arbor.[143]
There is leased space in buildings scattered throughout the city, many occupied by organizations affiliated with the University of Michigan Health System. In addition to the University of Michigan Golf Course on Ross Athletic Campus, the university operates a second golf course on Geddes Road called Radrick Farms Golf Course.[144] The university also operates a large office building called Wolverine Tower in southern Ann Arbor. The Inglis House is an off-campus facility, which the university has owned since the 1950s. The Inglis House is a 10,000-square-foot (930 m2) mansion used to hold various social events, including meetings of the Board of Regents, and to host visiting dignitaries.[145] Another major off-campus facility is the Matthaei Botanical Gardens, which is located on the eastern outskirts of the City of Ann Arbor.[146]
Central Campus Historic DistrictFurther information: University of Michigan Central Campus Historic DistrictSee also: The Diag
The northwest corner of The Diag around 1873, showing the university\'s gate, the Law Building (1863–1950) and University Hall (1872–1950)The original Central Campus spanned 40 acres (16 ha), bordered by North University Avenue, South University Avenue, East University Avenue, and State Street. The master plan was developed by Alexander Jackson Davis. The first structures built included four Greek Revival faculty residences in 1840,[147][148][149][150] as well as Mason Hall (1841–1950)[151] and South College (1849–1950),[152] which functioned as both academic spaces and dormitories. Only one of the original faculty residences remains today; it has been renovated in the Italianate style to serve as the President\'s House,[150] making it the oldest building on campus.[40] The Chemical Laboratory,[153] built by Albert Jordan in 1856 and operational until 1980, was notable for housing the nation\'s first instructional chemistry lab. After the completion of the Old Medical Building (1850–1914)[154] and the Law Building (1863–1950),[155] an open space known as The Diag began to take shape. Among the notable structures on the original Central Campus were University Hall (1872–1950),[156] designed by alumnus E. S. Jennison,[157] and the Old Library (1881–1918),[158] designed by Henry Van Brunt, who was also the architect behind Memorial Hall (1870) in Cambridge, Massachusetts.The Old Library (1881–1918), designed by Henry Van Brunt, had an addition built to the south in 1898. The portion constructed in 1883 was torn down in 1918.The Central Campus today, however, bears little resemblance to its 19th-century appearance, as most of its original structures were demolished and rebuilt in the early 20th century.[159][160] The rebuilt structures are primarily the work of Albert Kahn, who served as the university\'s supervising architect during that period.[161] In 1909, Regent William L. Clements became chairman of the Building and Grounds Committee, leading to Albert Kahn\'s growing influence in the university\'s architectural development. Clements, impressed by Kahn\'s work on his industrial projects and residence in Bay City, awarded him multiple university commissions and appointed him as the university\'s supervising architect. The West Engineering Hall (1910), Natural Science Building (1915), and General Library (1920) were all designed by Kahn. During a period of limited construction funding, these structures exhibited a simple design with minimal ornamentation. However, Kahn\'s Hill Auditorium (1913), adequately funded by Regent Arthur Hill, features extensive Sullivanesque ornamentation and excellent acoustic design, which was rare for that period.[157]James Burrill Angell Hall (1924) on Central Campus serves as a major academic building for the College of Literature, Science, and the ArtsBeginning in 1920, the university received greater funding for construction projects, thanks to president Burton\'s fiscal persuasiveness with the legislature, propelled by a prosperous economy. This allowed campus buildings to be constructed in a grand manner. Kahn\'s Italian Renaissance Clements Library (1923), Classical Greek Angell Hall (1924), and Art Deco Burton Memorial Tower (1936) all feature unusual and costly materials and are considered some of his most elegant university buildings. The last of Kahn\'s university commissions was the Ruthven Museums Building (1928), designed in the Renaissance style.[157]
Other architects who contributed to the Central Campus include Spier & Rohns, who designed Tappan Hall (1894) and the West Medical Building (1904); Smith, Hinchman and Grylls, the architects of the Chemistry Building (1910) and East Engineering Building; and Perkins, Fellows and Hamilton, who designed University High School (1924). The Michigan Union (1919) and Michigan League (1929), completed by alumni Irving Kane Pond and Allen Bartlit Pond, house the university\'s various student organizations. Alumni Memorial Hall, funded by contributions from alumni in memory of the university\'s Civil War dead, was completed by Donaldson and Meier. It was designated as the University Museum of Art in 1946.[157]Hutchins Hall (1933), designed by alumnus James Baird, is named after Harry Burns Hutchins, the fourth president of the universityThe area just south of The Diag is predominantly Gothic in character, contrasting with the classical designs prevalent in many of Kahn\'s university buildings. The Martha Cook Building (1915), completed by York and Sawyer, Samuel Parsons, and George A. Fuller in 1915, draws inspiration from England\'s Knole House and Aston Hall. It was one of the university’s early women’s residences. York and Sawyer also designed the Law Quadrangle, which features a flagstone courtyard by landscape architect Jacob Van Heiningan. The Lawyers\' Club, part of the quadrangle, includes a clubhouse, dining hall, and dormitory, modeled after English clubs with an Elizabethan-style lounge and a dining hall inspired by the chapels of Eaton. The Law Library\'s main reading room showcases craftsmanship from the Rockefeller Church of New York. Following its completion, nearby buildings like the School of Education Building, by Malcomson and Higginbotham, and Emil Lorch\'s Architecture and Design Building adopted Gothic elements reflecting the style of the Law Quadrangle and Martha Cook Residence.[157]
The Central Campus is the location of the College of Literature, Science and the Arts. Most of the graduate and professional schools, including the Law School, Ross School of Business, Gerald R. Ford School of Public Policy, and the School of Dentistry, are on Central Campus. Two main libraries, Hatcher Graduate Library and Shapiro Undergraduate Library, as well as the university\'s many museums, are also on Central Campus.[162]
North Campus
Earl V. Moore Building (1964), designed by Eero SaarinenThe North Campus area built independently from the city on a large plot of farmland—approximately 800 acres (3.2 km2)—that the university bought in 1952.[163] Architect Eero Saarinen devised the early master plan for the North Campus area and designed several of its buildings in the 1950s, including the Earl V. Moore School of Music Building.[164] The North Campus Diag features a bell tower called Lurie Tower, which contains a grand carillon.[165] The university\'s largest residence hall, Bursley Hall, is in the North Campus area.[160]
The North Campus houses the College of Engineering, the School of Music, Theatre & Dance, the Stamps School of Art & Design, the Taubman College of Architecture and Urban Planning, and an annex of the School of Information.[166] The campus area is served by Duderstadt Center, which houses the Art, Architecture and Engineering Library. Duderstadt Center also contains multiple computer labs, video editing studios, electronic music studios, an audio studio, a video studio, multimedia workspaces, and a 3D virtual reality room.[167] Other libraries located on North Campus include the Gerald R. Ford Presidential Library and the Bentley Historical Library.
Ross Athletic Campus
The University of Michigan Golf Course was designed by Scottish golf course architect Alister MacKenzie and opened in 1931Ross Athletic Campus is the site for the university\'s athletic programs, including major sports facilities such as Michigan Stadium, Crisler Center, and Yost Ice Arena. The campus area is also the site of the Buhr library storage facility, Revelli Hall, home of the Michigan Marching Band, the Institute for Continuing Legal Education,[168] and the Student Theatre Arts Complex, which provides shop and rehearsal space for student theatre groups.[169] The university\'s departments of public safety and transportation services offices are located on Ross Athletic Campus.[168]
The University of Michigan Golf Course is located south of Michigan Stadium. It was designed in the late 1920s by Alister MacKenzie, the designer of Augusta National Golf Club in Augusta, Georgia, home of the Masters Tournament.[170] The course opened to the public in 1931 and has one of \"the best holes ever designed by Augusta National architect Alister MacKenzie\" according to the magazine Sports Illustrated in 2006.[171]
Organization and administrationGovernanceSee also: Board of Regents of the University of Michigan and President of the University of Michigan
William W. Cook Legal Research Building at the Law School, showing the emblem of the University of Michigan
Photograph of Michigan University Regents 75th Anniversary Celebration on June 27, 1912.Standing L-R: Frank B. Leland, John H. Grant, Shirley W. Smith, Harry O. Bulkey, William L. Clements, Lucius Lee Hubbard, Benjamin Hanchett, Junius E. BealSeated L-R: Luther L. Wright, James B. Angell, Harry B. Hutchins, Walter M. SawyerThe University of Michigan is governed by the Board of Regents, established by the Organic Act of March 18, 1837. It consists of eight members, elected at large in biennial state elections for overlapping eight-year terms.[172][173][174] Before the Office of President was established in 1850, the University of Michigan was directly managed by the appointed regents, with a rotating group of professors responsible for carrying out day-to-day administrative duties.[175] The Constitution of the State of Michigan of 1850 restructured the university\'s administration. It established the Office of the President and transitioned the Board of Regents to an elected body. The state constitution granted the Board of Regents the power to appoint a non-voting presiding president to lead their meetings,[176] effectively elevating the board to the level of a constitutional corporation independent of the state administration and making the University of Michigan the first public institution of higher education in the country so organized. As of 2021–22, the Board of Regents is chaired by Jordan B. Acker (B.A. \'06).
The Board of Regents delegates its power to the university president who serves as the chief executive officer responsible for managing the day-to-day operations of the university, that is, the main campus in Ann Arbor. The president retains authority over the branch campuses in Dearborn and Flint but is not directly involved in their day-to-day management. Instead, two separate chancellors are appointed by the president to serve as chief executive officers overseeing each branch campus. All presidents are appointed by the Board of Regents to serve five-year terms, at the board\'s discretion, and there are no term limits for university presidents. The board has the authority to either terminate the president\'s tenure or extend it for an additional term.
The presidency of the University of Michigan is currently vacant, with Domenico Grasso (PhD ‘87) serving as the interim president.[177] Following the immediate resignation of Santa Ono,[178][179][180][181] the university\'s former president, the board of regents named Grasso as the university’s interim president on May 8, 2025.[177] He will lead the university during the search for the next president.[177] Laurie McCauley has been serving as the 17th and current provost of the university since May 2022, and she was recommended by former president Santa Ono to serve a full term through June 30, 2027.[182]
The President\'s House, located at 815 South University Avenue on the Ann Arbor campus, is the official residence and office of the University President. Constructed in 1840, the three-story Italianate President\'s House is the oldest surviving building on the Ann Arbor campus and a University of Michigan Central Campus Historic District contributing property.[183]
Student governmentThe Central Student Government, housed in the Michigan Union, is the university\'s student government. As a 501(c)(3) independent organization, it represents students from all colleges and schools, manages student funds on campus, and has representatives from each academic unit. The Central Student Government is separate from the University of Michigan administration.[184]Photograph of the senior parade on commencement day, circa 1903Over the years, the Central Student Government has led voter registration drives,[185] revived Homecoming events,[186] changed a football seating policy,[187] and created a Student Advisory Council for Ann Arbor city affairs.[188] A longstanding goal of the Central Student Government has been to create a student-designated seat on the Board of Regents.[189] In 2000 and 2002, students Nick Waun, Scott Trudeau, Matt Petering, and Susan Fawcett ran for the Board of Regents on the statewide ballot as third-party nominees, though none were successful.[190] A 1998 poll by the State of Michigan concluded that a majority of voters would approve adding a student regent position if put to a vote.[189] However, amending the composition of the Board of Regents would require a constitutional amendment in Michigan.[191]
In addition to the Central Student Government, each college and school at the University of Michigan has its own independent student governance body. Undergraduate students in the College of Literature, Science, and the Arts are represented by the LS&A Student Government.[192] Engineering Student Government manages undergraduate student government affairs for the College of Engineering. Graduate students enrolled in the Rackham Graduate School are represented by the Rackham Student Government, and law students are represented by the Law School Student Senate as is each other college with its own respective government. In addition, the students who live in the residence halls are represented by the University of Michigan Residence Halls Association, which contains the third most constituents after Central Student Government and LS&A Student Government.[193]
FinancesThe William W. Cook Legal Research Library and other buildings comprising the Law Quadrangle were built during 1923–33 and then donated to the university by William Wilson Cook. It was the university\'s most significant private gift at the time.In the fiscal year 2022–23, the State of Michigan spent $333 million on the university, which represents 3.03% of its total operating revenues of $11 billion.[194] The university is the second-largest recipient of state appropriations for higher education in Michigan for 2022-23, trailing Michigan State University ($372 million).[195] The Office of Budget and Planning reports that Michigan Medicine\'s auxiliary activities are the largest funding source, contributing $6.05 billion to the Auxiliary Funds, which accounts for 55.1% of the total operating budget. Student tuition and fees contributed $1.95 billion to the General Fund, accounting for 11% of the total budget.[194] Research grants and contracts from the U.S. federal government contributed $1.15 billion to the Expendable Restricted Funds, accounting for 10.4% of the total budget.[194]
The university\'s current (FY 2022–23) operating budget has four major sources of funding:[194]
General Fund money, which accounts for 25.4% of the operating budget, is derived from various sources: student tuition and fees ($1.95 billion or 75.2%), state support ($333 million or 12.8%), sponsored research ($301 million or 11.6%), and other revenue ($8 million or 0.3%). It covers the costs of teaching, student services, facilities, and administrative support. The state\'s annual contribution to the school\'s operating budget was 3.03% in 2023 and does not cover intercollegiate athletics, housing, or Michigan Medicine.[194]Auxiliary Funds, which account for 58.2% of the operating budget, are sourced from self-supporting units and do not receive taxpayer or tuition support. These include Michigan Medicine ($6.16 billion), intercollegiate athletics ($186 million), student housing ($160 million), and student publications.[194]Expendable Restricted Funds, which account for 14.2% of the operating budget, are from providers who designate how their money is spent. Funding comes from research grants and contracts, endowment payout ($305 million), and private gifts ($157 million). It pays for scholarships and fellowships; salaries, benefits and research support for some faculty; and research, programs and academic centers.[194]Designated Funds, which account for 2.2% of the operating budget, come from fees charged for and spent on experiential learning, programs, conferences, performance venues, and executive and continuing education.[194]EndowmentThe university\'s financial endowment, known as the \"University Endowment Fund\", comprises over 12,400 individual funds.[196] Each fund must be spent according to the donor\'s specifications.[196] Approximately 28% of the total endowment is allocated to support academic programs, while 22% is designated for student scholarships and fellowships.[196] Approximately 19% of the endowment was allocated to Michigan Medicine and can only be used to support research, patient care, or other purposes specified by donors.[196]
As of 2023, the university\'s endowment, valued at $17.9 billion, ranks as the tenth largest among all universities in the country.[197][198] The university ranks 86th in endowment per student.[197] The law school\'s endowment, totaling over $500 million, has a significantly higher per-student value compared to that of its parent university.[199] It ranks as the eighth wealthiest law school in the nation in 2022.[199]
Schools and colleges
Samuel Trask Dana Building (West Medical Building) houses the School for Environment and SustainabilityThere are thirteen undergraduate schools and colleges.[200] By enrollment, the three largest undergraduate units are the College of Literature, Science, and the Arts, the College of Engineering, and the Ross School of Business.[201] At the graduate level, the Rackham School of Graduate Studies serves as the central administrative unit of graduate education at the university.[202] There are 18 graduate schools and colleges. Professional degrees are conferred by the Taubman College of Architecture and Urban Planning, the School of Nursing, the School of Dentistry, the Law School, the Medical School, and the College of Pharmacy.[201] Michigan Medicine, the university\'s health system, comprises the university\'s three hospitals, dozens of outpatient clinics, and many centers for medical care, research, and education.
College/school Yearfounded[203] Enrollment(FA 2023) General Fund Budget($, 2022–23)[194] Budgetper student($, 2022–23)[194]A. Alfred Taubman College ofArchitecture & Urban Planning 1906 737 25,707,200 34,881School of Dentistry 1875 670 41,055,284 61,277College of Engineering 1854 11,113 276,845,246 24,912School for Environment and Sustainability 1927 516 28,034,976 54,331School of Information 1969 1,760 50,147,537 28,493School of Kinesiology 1984 1,312 22,088,845 16,836Law School 1859 1,017 57,495,856 56,535College of Literature, Science, and the Arts 1841 21,973 522,704,411 23,788Marsal Family School of Education 1921 371 19,058,427 51,370Medical School 1921 1,677 124,714,812 74,368School of Music, Theatre & Dance 1880 1,134 43,101,134 38,008School of Nursing 1893 1,183 31,644,687 26,750College of Pharmacy 1876 561 22,056,888 39,317School of Public Health 1941 1,162 49,478,265 42,580Gerald R. Ford School of Public Policy 1914 362 17,191,821 47,491Stephen M. Ross School of Business 1924 4,433 137,479,144 31,013School of Social Work 1951 940 31,557,111 33,571Penny W. Stamps School of Art & Design 1974 740 18,111,495 24,475University of Michigan, Ann Arbor* – 52,065 2,590,485,130 49,755*included other standalone admission statistics ofthe University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 2024[204] 2023[205] 2022[206] 2021[207] 2020[208]First-time fall freshmanEarly action & regular decision, combinedApplicants 98,310 87,632 84,289 79,743 65,021Admits 15,373 15,722 14,914 16,071 16,974Admit rate 15.64% 17.94% 17.69% 20.15% 26.11%Enrolled 7,278 7,466 7,050 7,290 6,879Yield 47.34% 47.49% 47.27% 45.36% 40.53%SAT range 1360-1530 1350–1530 1350–1530 1360–1530 1340–1520ACT range 31-34 31–34 31–34 31–35 31–34Fall transfersApplicants 6,832 6,113 5,633 4,942 4,513Admits 2,385 2,109 2,062 2,051 2,066Admit rate 34.91% 34.50% 36.61% 41.50% 45.78%Enrolled 1,580 1,414 1,342 1,407 1,305Yield 66.25% 67.05% 65.08% 68.60% 63.17%The University of Michigan is one of the most selective public universities in the United States,[b] and ranks among the most selective institutions nationwide.[c] U.S. News & World Report rates Michigan \"Most Selective\",[220] and The Princeton Review rates its admissions selectivity of 96 out of 99.[221] Admissions are characterized as \"more selective, lower transfer-in\" according to the Carnegie Classification.[222][223] Michigan received over 83,000 applications for a place in the 2021–22 freshman class, making it one of the most applied-to universities in the United States.[223][224] Of those students accepted to Michigan\'s Class of 2027, 7,050 chose to attend.
Admission is based on academic prowess, extracurricular activities, and personal qualities. The university\'s admission process is need-blind for domestic applicants.[225] Admissions officials consider a student\'s standardized test scores, application essay and letters of recommendation to be important academic factors, with emphasis on an applicant\'s academic record and GPA, while ranking an applicant\'s high school class rank as \'not considered\'.[206][207] In terms of non-academic materials as of 2022, Michigan ranks character/personal qualities and whether the applicant is a first-generation university applicant as \'important\' in making first-time, first-year admission decisions, while ranking extracurricular activities, talent/ability, geographical residence, state residency, volunteer work, work experience and level of applicant\'s interest as \'considered\'.[206] Some applicants to Music, Theatre and Dance and some applicants to the College of Engineering may be interviewed.[206] A portfolio is required and considered for admission for Art, Architecture and the Ross School of Business.[206] Submission of standardized test scores is recommended but not compulsory.[226] Of the 52% of enrolled freshmen in 2023 who submitted SAT scores; the middle 50 percent Composite scores were 1350–1530. Of the 18% of the incoming freshman class who submitted ACT scores; the middle 50 percent Composite score was between 31 and 34.
Since the fall of 2021, the university has had the largest number of students in the state, surpassing Michigan State University\'s former enrollment leadership.[227] Given the state\'s shrinking pool of college-age students, there is public concern that the university\'s expansion could harm smaller schools by drawing away good students.[228][229] Some of the state\'s regional public universities and smaller private colleges have already seen significant declines in enrollment, while others face difficulties in maintaining enrollment figures without lowering admission standards.[228]
The university experienced an unexpected surge in student enrollment for the 2023 academic year, having admitted more students than it could support.[230] This over-yield situation has placed considerable strain on student housing affordability, heightened faculty members\' workloads, and stretched resources thin.[230] The university is now embracing a steady-state admissions management strategy aimed at maintaining a stable class size.[230]
GraduateDoctoral program statistics ofthe Rackham Graduate School 2024[231] 2023[231] 2022[231] 2021[231] 2020[231]Applicants 21,554 19,166 17,547 18,820 17,061Offers 2,586 2,875 2,480 2,349 2,326Selectivity 12.00% 15.00% 14.13% 12.48% 13.63%Matriculations 1,102 1,258 981 1,013 945Yield 42.61% 43.76% 39.56% 43.12% 40.63%The Horace H. Rackham School of Graduate Studies, the graduate school of the University of Michigan, received a total of 21,554 applications for admission into its doctoral programs for the 2024 admission year, encompassing the Summer and Fall terms.[231] The school extended offers of admission to 2,586 applicants, representing 12.00% of the applicant pool.[231] Subsequently, 1,102 of the offers were accepted, resulting in a yield rate of 42.61% for the academic year.[231] Applicants may submit multiple applications to different doctoral programs and receive multiple offers, but can only matriculate into one program at a time. Doctoral programs that are not administered by Rackham are not included in the statistics.
The selectivity of admissions to doctoral programs varies considerably among different disciplines, with certain highly competitive fields exhibiting acceptance rates in the single digits. For instance, in 2023, the field of Business Administration admitted only 5.2% of its 519 applicants. Similarly, the field of Sociology had a selectivity rate of 5.01%, selecting from a pool of 439 applicants. The field of Psychology was even more competitive, with a selectivity rate of 4.1% out of 805 applicants. Other traditionally highly competitive fields include Philosophy, Public Policy & Economics, Political Science, and Robotics.[231]
History of admissions policiesEnrollment in University of Michigan-Ann Arbor (2013–2024)Academic Year Undergraduates Graduate Total Enrollment2013–2014[232] 28,283 15,427 43,7102014–2015[233] 28,395 15,230 43,6252015–2016[234] 28,312 15,339 43,6512016–2017[235] 28,964 15,754 44,7182017–2018[236] 29,821 16,181 46,0022018–2019[237] 30,318 16,398 46,7162019–2020[238] 31,266 16,824 48,0902020–2021[208] 31,329 16,578 47,9072021–2022[207] 32,282 17,996 50,2782022–2023[206] 32,695 18,530 51,2252023–2024[205] 33,730 18,335 52,065In August 1841, the university first published its admission requirements for incoming freshmen. These criteria placed a strong emphasis on proficiency in ancient languages, particularly Latin and Greek.[239] Prospective students faced an examination process that assessed their knowledge across various subjects, including arithmetic, algebra, English grammar, geography, Latin literature (Virgil and Cicero\'s Select Orations), Greek literature (Jacob\'s or Felton\'s Greek Reader), Latin grammar (Andrews and Stoddard\'s), and Greek grammar (Sophocles\'s).
A decade later, the university made a significant change to its admission policy. In 1851, it introduced a more flexible approach by waiving the ancient language requirement for students not pursuing the traditional collegiate course and allowing admission without examination in classical languages for these students.[240] This adjustment can be viewed as a prelude to scientific education, signaling a gradual shift from the classical curriculum to a more diverse and modern academic offering.
In the early days of the university, the admission requirements varied across different departments, and most admissions were based on referrals. However, in 1863, a standardized entrance examination was introduced, establishing a single set of qualifications for admission to all academic and professional departments.[241] The university administration at the time praised the implementation of this entrance examination, recognizing its contribution to enhancing the admission process.[240] This entrance examination played a crucial role in the admission process throughout the 19th century until the introduction of nationwide standardized tests.
Affirmative actionMain article: Affirmative action at the University of MichiganIn 2003, two lawsuits involving U-M\'s affirmative action admissions policy reached the U.S. Supreme Court (Grutter v. Bollinger and Gratz v. Bollinger). U.S. President George W. Bush publicly opposed the policy before the court issued a ruling.[242] The court found that race may be considered as a factor in university admissions in all public universities and private universities that accept federal funding, but it ruled that a point system was unconstitutional. In the first case, the court upheld the Law School admissions policy, while in the second it ruled against the university\'s undergraduate admissions policy.[243] The debate continued because in November 2006, Michigan voters passed Proposal 2, banning most affirmative action in university admissions. Under that law, race, gender, and national origin can no longer be considered in admissions.[244] U-M and other organizations were granted a stay from implementation of the law soon after that referendum. This allowed time for proponents of affirmative action to decide legal and constitutional options in response to the initiative results. In April 2014, the Supreme Court ruled in Schuette v. Coalition to Defend Affirmative Action that Proposal 2 did not violate the U.S. Constitution. The admissions office states that it will attempt to achieve a diverse student body by looking at other factors, such as whether the student attended a disadvantaged school, and the level of education of the student\'s parents.[244]
Undergraduate graduation and retentionAmong all first-time freshmen students who enrolled at the university in fall 2017, 82.0% graduated within four years (by August 31, 2021); 10.2% graduated in more than four years but in five years or less (after August 31, 2021 and by August 31, 2022); 1.1% graduated in more than five years but in six years or less (after August 31, 2022 and by August 31, 2023).[205] The percentage of undergraduate students from the fall 2022 cohort returning in fall 2023 was 98.0% for full-time freshman students.[205]
Majors and programsThe university offers 133 undergraduate majors & degrees across the College of Engineering (18), College of Literature, Science, and the Arts (77), College of Pharmacy (1), Ford School of Public Policy (1), LSA Residential College (3), Marsal Family School of Education (3), Ross School of Business (1), School of Dentistry (1), School of Information (2), School of Kinesiology (3), School of Music, Theatre & Dance (16), School of Nursing (1), School of Public Health (2), Stamps School of Art & Design (2), and Taubman College of Architecture & Urban Planning (2). The most popular undergraduate majors, by 2021 graduates, were computer and information sciences (874), business administration and management (610), economics (542), behavioral neuroscience (319), mechanical engineering (316), experimental psychology (312).[245]
The Horace H. Rackham School of Graduate Studies offers more than 180 graduate degree programs in collaboration with fourteen other schools and colleges. Nineteen graduate and professional degree programs, including the juris doctor, master of business administration, doctor of dental surgery, master of engineering, doctor of engineering, doctor of medicine, and doctor of pharmacy, are offered exclusively by the schools and colleges; Rackham does not oversee their administration. The university conferred 4,951 graduate degrees, and 709 first professional degrees in archway leading into the Law Quadrangle from South University AvenueThe university is listed among the leading suppliers of undergraduate and graduate alumni to Silicon Valley tech firms.[248] In 2015, the university ranked 6th on the list of top feeder schools for Google, which employed over 500 graduates at the time. The university ranked 10th on the list of top feeder schools for Meta.[249] Google and Meta remain the university\'s first and second top employers in 2024.[250]
The university has ranked 3rd overall in investment banking analyst placements, according to data from Terrain Analytics.[citation needed] This ranking is based on 216 total hires of graduates from 2008 to 2023 who secured positions within the United States, including 74 placements at elite firms such as Goldman Sachs, Morgan Stanley, JPMorgan Chase, Evercore, and Centerview Partners.[citation needed] The ranking adjusts to 8th place when accounting for the size of the undergraduate population.[citation needed] The university also ranked 3rd overall in recruiting for undergraduate management consulting jobs, with 102 graduates from 2014-2020 securing positions at the Big Three firms: McKinsey, BCG, and Bain.[citation needed]
In 2022, Michigan Ross ranked 11th among all business schools in the United States according to Poets & Quants, with its MBA graduates earning an average starting base salary of $165,000 and an average sign-on bonus of $30,000.[251]
In academia, the university ranks among the five most common institutions for doctoral training, alongside UC Berkeley, Harvard, the University of Wisconsin-Madison, and Stanford. Together, these universities have trained one in eight tenure-track faculty members currently serving at institutions of higher learning across the nation.[252]
The U.S. Department of Education reports that as of June 2024, federally aided students who attended University of Michigan-Ann Arbor had a median annual income of $83,648 (based on 2020-2021 earnings adjusted to 2022 dollars) five years after graduation.[253] This figure exceeds both the midpoint for 4-year schools of $53,617 and the U.S. real median personal income of $40,460 for the year 2021 adjusted to 2022 dollars.[253][254] Federally aided bachelor\'s graduates from the university\'s largest program, computer and information science, which had over 950 students in the 2020-21 cohort, had a median annual income of $153,297 five years after graduation.[253]
According to data from the U.S. Department of Education, law tops the list of most valuable first professional degrees offered by the university when ranked by earnings potential in 2022, with its federally aided students earning a median salary of $197,273 five years after graduation.[253] Dentistry ($158,677), pharmacy ($142,224), and medicine ($134,187) follow behind in that order.[253]
The fields of business administration ($140,827), economics ($108,627), mathematics ($107,395), and statistics ($105,494) are among the bachelor\'s degree programs with the highest earning potential offered by the university.[253] In 2022, the university\'s federally aided students in these programs were earning median salaries exceeding the $100,000 threshold five years after graduation.[253] Additionally, various engineering disciplines such as computer engineering ($123,120), aerospace, aeronautical, and astronautical engineering ($113,025), industrial engineering ($109,239), electrical, electronics and communications engineering ($109,107), mechanical engineering ($101,514), chemical engineering ($100,000) are among the top-earning majors.[253] Computer sciences ($153,297) and information science ($125,257) also fall into this high-earning category.[253]
Libraries and publicationsMain articles: University of Michigan Library and University of Michigan PressThe University of Michigan library system comprises nineteen individual libraries with twenty-four separate collections—roughly 13.3 million volumes as of 2012.[255] The university was the original home of the JSTOR database, which contains about 750,000 digitized pages from the entire pre-1990 backfile of ten journals of history and economics, and has initiated a book digitization program in collaboration with Google.[256] The University of Michigan Press is also a part of the library system.
Several academic journals are published at the university:
The Law School publishes Michigan Law Review and six other law journals: The Michigan Journal of Environmental and Administrative Law, University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform, Michigan Journal of Race & Law, Michigan Telecommunications and Technology Law Review, Michigan Journal of International Law, and Michigan Journal of Gender and Law.[257]The Ross School of Business publishes the Michigan Journal of Business.Several undergraduate journals are also published at the university, including the Michigan Journal of Political Science, Michigan Journal of History, University of Michigan Undergraduate Research Journal, the Michigan Journal of International Affairs, and the Michigan Journal of Asian Studies.Reputation and rankingsAcademic rankingsNationalForbes[258] 29U.S. News & World Report[259] 21 (tie)Washington Monthly[260] 18WSJ/College Pulse[261] 22GlobalARWU[262] 30QS[263] 45THE[264] 22 (tie)U.S. News & World Report[265] 21 (tie)The University of Michigan is considered one of the flagship public universities,[d] and elite institutions in the United States.[e] It is a large, four-year, residential research university accredited by the Higher Learning Commission.[222][277][278] The four-year, full-time undergraduate program comprises the majority of enrollments and emphasizes instruction in the arts, sciences, and professions with a high level of coexistence between graduate and undergraduate programs. The university has \"very high\" research activity and the comprehensive graduate program offers doctoral degrees in the humanities, social sciences, and STEM fields as well as professional degrees in medicine, law, and dentistry.[222] The university has been included on the list of Public Ivies.[f][285]
Comprehensive rankingsThe 2025-2026 U.S. News & World Report Best Global Universities report ranked the university 21st among world universities with a global score of 83.2.[286] The university scored highly in global and regional research reputation, ranking #12 and #5 respectively, as well as in total citations (#14) and the number of publications among the top 10% most cited (#13). However, it lags in areas such as international collaboration (ranked #1202), international collaboration relative to its country (#857), normalized citation impact (#146), and the percentage of highly cited papers that are among the top 1% most cited (#191). The university is decently ranked in categories like publications (#17), books (#27), conferences (#31), and the number of highly cited papers that are among the top 1% most cited (#18).[286]
University of Michigan-Ann Arbor was ranked 26th among world universities in 2023 by the Academic Ranking of World Universities, based on the number of alumni or staff as Nobel laureates and Fields Medalists, the number of highly cited researchers, the number of papers published in Nature and Science, the number of papers indexed in the Science Citation Index Expanded and Social Sciences Citation Index, and the per capita academic performance of the institution.[citation needed]
The 2024 edition of the CWUR Rankings ranked the university 13th nationally and 16th globally, with an overall score of 89.1, taking into account all four areas evaluated by CWUR: education, employability, faculty, and research.[287][288] The university excels in research (ranked 9th globally), measured by the total number of research papers (10% weight), the number of research papers appearing in top-tier journals (10% weight), the number of research papers appearing in highly-influential journals (10% weight), and the number of highly-cited research papers (10% weight).[287] However, its ranking in the faculty category is relatively lower at 63rd globally. This metric evaluates the number of faculty members who have received prestigious academic distinctions (10% weight).[287] The university\'s employability ranking is 42nd globally, based on the professional success of the university\'s alumni, measured relative to the institution\'s size (25% weight).[287] In the education category, the university is ranked 35th globally. This metric assesses the academic success of the university\'s alumni, measured relative to the institution\'s size (25% weight).[287]
In the 2025 QS World University Rankings, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor was ranked 44th in the world, its lowest position in 10 years, with an overall score of 79.[289][290]
Global/overall rankings
Country of publication Score (out of 100) World rank Year Change(Y/Y) Change(5 Yr.)China Academic Ranking of World Universities 38.0 30 2024 Decrease 4 Decrease 10United States U.S. News Best Global Universities 83.2 21 2025–26 Decrease 2 Decrease 2United Kingdom QS Top Global Universities 84.7 45 2026 Decrease 1 Decrease 24United Kingdom THE World University Rankings 87.7 22 2025 Increase 1 Decrease 1United Arab Emirates CWUR World University Rankings 89.1 16 2025 Steady SteadySpecific rankingsMichigan was ranked 6th in the 2021 U.S. News & World Report Best Undergraduate Engineering Programs Rankings.[291] Michigan was ranked 3rd in the 2021 U.S. News & World Report Best Undergraduate Business Programs Rankings.[292] The 2020 Princeton Review College Hopes & Worries Survey ranked Michigan as the No. 9 \"Dream College\" among students and the No. 7 \"Dream College\" among parents.[293]
Department rankingsSubject-specific rankings
ResearchR&D statistics, by yearNational Science Foundation National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and MedicineTotal R&Dexpenditures($000) Nationalrank NationalAcademymembers Nationalrank2024 – – 139 –2023 1,925,875[296] 4 – –2022 1,770,708[296] 4 – –2021 1,639,645[296] 3 – –2020 1,673,862[296] 2 – –2019 1,675,805[296] 2 120[297] 102018 1,600,869[296] 2 118[298] 92017 1,530,139[296] 2 113[299] 12The University of Michigan is one of the twelve founding members of the Association of American Universities, a consortium of the leading research universities in North America. The university manages the fourth-largest research budget of any university in the United States, with total R&D expenditures of $1.925 billion in 2023.[300][301] The federal government was the main source of funding, with grants from the National Science Foundation, National Institutes of Health, NASA, Department of Defense, Department of Energy, Department of Transportation, and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), collectively accounting for over half of the research volume.[302]
The first measurement of the magnetic moment and spin of free electrons and positrons was conducted by H. Richard Crane, an experimental physicist at the university.[303] The university operated the Ford Nuclear Reactor from 1933 to 1955, during which it conducted extensive research related to nuclear energy. It currently hosts several major research centers focusing on optics, reconfigurable manufacturing systems, and wireless integrated microsystems.
A pioneer in computing technology, the university designed and built the Michigan Terminal System, an early time-sharing computer operating system,[304][305][306] and was involved in the development of the NSFnet national backbone, which is regarded as the foundation upon which the global Internet was built.[307][308][309] In 2024, the university began collaborating with Los Alamos National Laboratory on high-performance computing and AI research.[310][311]
The first inactivated flu vaccine was developed by Thomas Francis Jr. and Jonas Salk at Michigan.[312][313][314] This was the first of many advancements at the university related to vaccination, including the development of a live attenuated influenza vaccine by Hunein Maassab.[315] The university also introduced histotripsy, a non-invasive technique that uses focused ultrasound to treat diseased tissue, and has made significant contributions to medical technology with innovations such as the EKG and gastroscope.[316][317][318]
In the social sciences, the Klein–Goldberger model, an enhanced macroeconomic model, was developed by Lawrence Klein and Arthur Goldberger at the university.[319] George Katona created consumer confidence measures in the late 1940s. J. David Singer initiated the Correlates of War project in 1963 to compile scientific knowledge about war.[320][321] The American National Election Studies, established with a National Science Foundation grant in 1977, has been based at the university and partnered with Stanford University since 2005.[citation needed] The Institute for Social Research, established in 1949, is the nation\'s longest-standing laboratory for interdisciplinary research in the social sciences.[322]
Clarivate(Web of Science) Nature Index ARWU NTU Rankings URAPHighly CitedResearchers Share** Nationalrank Globalrank World rank World rank World rank2024 25[323] – – – 30 13[324] –2023 28[323] 380.50[325] 4 21 26 10[324] 16[326]2022 32[323] 372.55[327] 6 23 28 14[324] 12[328]2021 27[323] 338.53[329] 6 24 26 9[324] 8[330]2020 29[323] 398.65[331] 4 16 22 9[324] 8[332]2019 37[323] 343.97[333] 5 19 20 8[324] 8[334]2018 38[323] 344.07[335] 6 19 27 7[324] 9[336]2017 20[323] 336.04[337] 5 16 24 7[324] –**Time frame: January 1 - December 31The university has been featured in multiple bibliometric rankings that assess its impact on academic publications through citation analysis. The University Ranking by Academic Performance for 2023–24 has positioned the university at 16th globally.[338] Additionally, in 2024, the Performance Ranking of Scientific Papers for World Universities ranked it 13th worldwide.[339] The university has a significant presence in the Nature Index, ranking 6th nationally and 23rd globally among research institutions, with a share of 365.97 and a count of 1199 in 2022.[327] The university boasted 28 researchers who were recognized by Clarivate as being highly cited in 2023.[323] In 2019, the university had 120 faculty members who were national academy members, placing it 10th among its peers in this metric.[297]
Undergraduate students participate in various research projects through the Undergraduate Research Opportunity Program (UROP) as well as the university is a member of the international research association Universities Research Association and the state-wise University Research Corridor.[343][344] Beginning in 2005, the university operated the UM-SJTU Joint Institute with Shanghai Jiao Tong University, but in 2025, it withdrew from the partnership due to national security concerns.[345]
Student lifeStudent bodyUndergraduate demographicsas of July 2025[346]Race and ethnicity TotalWhite 49% Asian 19% Hispanic 10% Foreign national 8% Black 5% Two or more races 5% Unknown 4% Economic diversity[346]Low-income[h] 18% As of fall 2023, the Ann Arbor campus had 52,065 students enrolled: 33,730 undergraduate students and 18,335 graduate students. The total number of employees reached 53,831, which included 21,475 individuals working with Michigan Medicine, 6,114 supplemental staff, 7,820 faculty members, and 18,422 regular staff.[13][347] The largest college at the university was the College of Literature, Science, and the Arts with 21,973 students (42.2% of the total student body), followed by the College of Engineering (11,113; 21.3%) and Ross School of Business (4,433; 8.1%). All other colleges each hosted less than 5% of the total student population.[348]
Students come from all 50 U.S. states and nearly 100 countries.[223] As of 2022, 52% of undergraduate students were Michigan residents, while 43% came from other states. The remainder of the undergraduate student body was composed of international students.[349] Of the total student body, 43,253 (83.1%) were U.S. citizens or permanent residents and 8,812 (16.9%) were international students as of November 2023.[350]
As of October 2023, 53% of undergraduate students self-identified as White, 17% as Asian, 7% as Hispanic, 4% as Black, 5% as belonging to two or more races, and 5% as having an unknown racial composition. The remaining 8% of undergraduates were international students.[346]
According to a 2017 report by the New York Times, the median family income of a student at Michigan was $154,000. 66% of students came from families within the top 20% in terms of income.[351] As of 2022, approximately 23% of in-state undergraduate students and 14% of out-of-state students received a Pell Grant.[349]
Residential lifeMain article: University of Michigan HousingThe University of Michigan\'s residential system can accommodate approximately 10,000 students.[352] The residence halls are located in three distinct geographic areas on campus: the Central Campus area, The Hill (between the Central Campus area and the main medical campus) and the North Campus area. The largest residence hall has a capacity of 1,270 students,[353] while the smallest accommodates 25 residents.[354]
Residential halls at the University of MichiganMartha Cook BuildingLaw QuadrangleJohn P. Cook DormitoryLawyers ClubStockwell Residence HallBetsy Barbour HouseNorth QuadrangleJoseph A. and Marguerite K. Bursley HallVera Baits HousesWest QuandrangleMosher-Jordan HallNorthwood ApartmentsGroups and activities
Photograph of the University of Michigan Democratic Club in 1898.Back Row (L–R): Arthur Lacy, C. Thomas, J.M. BailyFront Row (L–R): F.K. Bowers, C.F. Kelley, C.D. Landis, JS. McElligottBy 2012, the university had 1,438 student organizations.[355] The student body is politically engaged, though, with 96% stating they intended to vote in the 2020 election. It is largely progressive, with 43% identifying as very liberal, 33% as somewhat liberal, and 13% moderate. 11% identified as conservative or very conservative.[356] With a history of student activism, some of the most visible groups include those dedicated to causes such as civil rights and labor rights, such as local chapters of Students for a Democratic Society and United Students Against Sweatshops. Conservative groups also organize, such as the Young Americans for Freedom.[357]
There are also several engineering projects teams, including the University of Michigan Solar Car Team, which has placed first in the North American Solar Challenge ten times and podium in the World Solar Challenge seven times[358] and the Wolverine Soft student-run game studio, which has released more than 15 video games on itch.io and Steam.[359] Michigan Interactive Investments,[360] the TAMID Israel Investment Group,[361] and the Michigan Economics Society[362] are also affiliated with the university.
The university also showcases many community service organizations and charitable projects, including Foundation for International Medical Relief of Children, Dance Marathon at the University of Michigan,[363] The Detroit Partnership, Relay For Life, U-M Stars for the Make-A-Wish Foundation, InnoWorks at the University of Michigan, SERVE, Letters to Success, PROVIDES, Circle K, Habitat for Humanity,[364] and Ann Arbor Reaching Out. Intramural sports are popular, and there are recreation facilities for each of the three campuses.[365]Michigan Union, an Art Deco building constructed on land wholly owned by the student society in 1917, was designed by Michigan alumni Irving Kane Pond and Allen Bartlit Pond.The Michigan Union and Michigan League are student activity centers located on Central Campus; Pierpont Commons is on North Campus. The Michigan Union houses a majority of student groups, including the student government. The William Monroe Trotter House, located east of Central Campus, is a multicultural student center operated by the university\'s Office of Multi-Ethnic Student Affairs.[366] The University Activities Center (UAC) is a student-run programming organization and is composed of 14 committees.[367] Each group involves students in the planning and execution of a variety of events both on and off campus.Michigan Marching Band on the field at Michigan versus Harvard football game in 1940The Michigan Marching Band, composed of more than 350 students from almost all of U-M\'s schools,[368] is the university\'s marching band. Over 125 years old (with a first performance in 1897),[369] the band performs at every home football game and travels to at least one away game a year. The student-run and led University of Michigan Pops Orchestra is another musical ensemble that attracts students from all academic backgrounds. It performs regularly in the Michigan Theater. The University of Michigan Men\'s Glee Club, founded in 1859 and the second oldest such group in the country, is a men\'s chorus with over 100 members.[370] Its eight-member subset a cappella group, the University of Michigan Friars, which was founded in 1955, is the oldest currently running a cappella group on campus.[371] The University of Michigan is also home to over twenty other a cappella groups, including Amazin\' Blue, The Michigan G-Men, and Compulsive Lyres, all of which have competed at the International Championship of Collegiate A Cappella (ICCA) finals in New York City. Compulsive Lyres are the first and only group from Michigan to claim an ICCA title, having won in 2002.[372] The Michigan G-Men are one of only six groups in the country to compete at ICCA finals four times, one of only two TTBB ensembles to do so, and placed third at the competition in 2015.[373] Amazin\' Blue placed fourth at ICCA finals in 2017.
The University of Michigan also has over 380 cultural and ethnic student organizations on campus.[374] These range the Arab Student Association to Persian Student Association[375] to African Students Association[376] to even the Egyptian Student Association.[377]
Fraternities and sororities
Photograph of the 14 founding members of Acacia, the only general fraternity to be founded in Michigan.Fraternities and sororities play a role in the university\'s social life; approximately seven percent of undergraduate men and 16% of undergraduate women are active in the Greek system.[378] Four different Greek councils—the Interfraternity Council, Multicultural Greek Council, National Pan-Hellenic Council, and Panhellenic Association—represent most Greek organizations. Each council has a different recruitment process.[379]Delta Sigma Delta, the first dental fraternity in the worldNational honor societies such as Phi Beta Kappa, Phi Kappa Phi, and Tau Beta Pi have chapters at U-M.[380] Degrees \"with Highest Distinction\" are recommended to students who rank in the top 3% of their class, \"with High Distinction\" to the next 7%, and \"with Distinction\" to the next 15%. Students earning a minimum overall GPA of 3.4 who have demonstrated high academic achievement and capacity for independent work may be recommended for a degree \"with Highest Honors\", \"with High Honors\", or \"with Honors\".[380] Those students who earn all A\'s for two or more consecutive terms in a calendar year are recognized as James B. Angell Scholars and are invited to attend the annual Honors Convocation, an event which recognizes undergraduate students with distinguished academic achievements.[380]Phi Delta Phi, the oldest legal organization in continuous existence in the United StatesCollegiate secret societiesThe University of Michigan hosts three secret societies: Michigauma, Adara, and the Vulcans. Michigauma and Adara were once under the umbrella group \"The Tower Society\", the name referring to their historical locations in the Michigan Union tower. Michigauma was all-male while Adara was all-female, although both later became co-ed.
Michigauma, more recently known as the Order of Angell, was formed in 1902 by a group of seniors in coordination with university president James Burrill Angell. The group disbanded itself in 2021 due to public concerns about elitism and the society\'s history. The group was granted a lease for the top floor of the Michigan Union tower in 1932, which they referred to as the \"tomb\", but the society vacated the space in 2000. Until more recent reforms, the group\'s rituals were inspired by the culture of Native Americans.[381] Some factions on campus identified Michigauma as a secret society, but many disputed that characterization, as its member list has been published some years in The Michigan Daily and the Michiganensian, and online since 2006 reforms.Adara, known as Phoenix, was formed in the late 1970s by women leaders on campus and disbanded itself in 2021 amid campus criticisms of secret societies.[382] In the early 1980s they joined the tower society and occupied the sixth floor of the tower just below Michigamua.Vulcans, occupied the fifth floor of the Union tower though were not formally a part of the tower society. They draw their heritage from the Roman god Vulcan. The group which used to do its tapping publicly is known for its long black robes and for its financial contributions of the College of Engineering.Media and publications
Stanford Lipsey Student Publications BuildingThe student newspaper is The Michigan Daily, which was founded in 1890 and is editorially and financially independent from the university. The Daily publishes daily online content and a weekly print edition. The yearbook is the Michiganensian, founded in 1896. Other student publications at the university include the conservative Michigan Review and the Gargoyle Humor Magazine.
WCBN-FM (88.3 FM) is the student-run college radio station which plays in freeform format. WOLV-TV is the student-run television station that is primarily shown on the university\'s cable television system. WJJX was previously the school\'s student-run radio station. A carrier current station, it was launched in 1953.[383]
SafetyViolent crime is rare on campus, though there have been a few notorious cases, including Theodore Kaczynski\'s attempted murder of professor James V. McConnell and research assistant Nicklaus Suino in 1985. In 2022, David DePape, the man convicted of attacking Paul Pelosi, who is the husband of former U.S. House Speaker Nancy Pelosi, targeted Gayle Rubin, an associate professor of anthropology and women’s studies at the university.[384] DePape testified during his trial that he hoped to use Nancy and Paul Pelosi in an effort to get to Gayle Rubin.[384]
In 2014, the University of Michigan was named one of 55 higher education institutions under investigation by the Office of Civil Rights \"for possible violations of federal law over the handling of sexual violence and harassment complaints.\" President Barack Obama\'s White House Task Force to Protect Students from Sexual Assault was organized for such investigations.[385] Seven years later, in 2021, the university attracted national attention when a report commissioned by the university was released that detailed an investigation into sexual assault allegations against doctor Robert Anderson who reportedly abused at least 950 university students, many of whom were athletes, from 1966 to 2003.[386] Several football players from that time say football coach Bo Schembechler ignored and enabled the abuse and told players to \"toughen up\" after being molested.[387] Schembechler reportedly punched his then 10-year-old son Matthew after he reported abuse by Anderson.[388] Following the exposure of a similar history of abuse at Ohio State University, male survivors of both Anderson at Michigan and Strauss at Ohio State spoke out to combat sexual abuse.[389] The University of Michigan settled with the survivors for $490 million.[390]
AthleticsMain article: Michigan Wolverines
Burgee of University of MichiganThe university\'s athletics history dates back to the late 19th century, with the baseball team founded in 1866, the football team established in 1879, and the men\'s tennis team originating in 1893. The university has 27 varsity intercollegiate sports, including 13 men\'s teams and 14 women\'s teams.[391]
The university\'s intercollegiate sports teams, known as the \"Wolverines,\" participate in the Big Ten Conference in most sports, with the exception of the women\'s water polo team, which competes in the Collegiate Water Polo Association. The teams compete at the NCAA Division I level in all sports, including Division I FBS in football. The teams share the nickname \"Wolverines\" with several other collegiate athletic teams in the country, such as the Utah Valley Wolverines, the Grove City Wolverines, and the Morris Brown Wolverines.
In 1896, the university became a founding member of the Intercollegiate Conference of Faculty Representatives, which later evolved into the Western Conference (1896–1899) and eventually became known as the Big Ten Conference (since 1950). However, by April 1907, just a decade later, the university was voted out of the conference for refusing to adhere to league rules. Following a nine-year absence, the university rejoined the conference in 1917.
In 1926, Harvard made an agreement to play football against Michigan, dropping Princeton from its schedule due to past rough matches. Princeton perceived this move as a threat to the \'Big Three\' relationship, fearing it would lose its status as a rival to Harvard and be relegated to a secondary class. By the 1930s, the \'Big Three\' was restored and expanded into the Ivy League in 1939.[392]
In 2023, during the NCAA\'s investigation into sign-stealing allegations against the football team\'s staff members, the university\'s board of regents considered the possibility of leaving the Big Ten conference due to dissatisfaction with the conference\'s handling of the investigation.[393][394]
VenuesThe Ray Fisher Stadium, constructed in 1923, serves as the home venue for the baseball team. The Alumni Field at Carol Hutchins Stadium, formerly known as the Varsity Diamond, is the home field for the university\'s softball team. The Yost Ice Arena, opened in 1923, is the home arena for the men\'s ice hockey team. The Crisler Center, opened in 1967 and previously known as the University Events Building and Crisler Arena, serves as the home venue for the men\'s and women\'s basketball teams as well as the women\'s gymnastics team. The Phyllis Ocker Field, constructed in 1995 and built partially on the site of Regents Field, is the home venue for the university\'s field hockey teams.
Michigan Stadium is the largest stadium in the United States,[395][396][397] as well as the Western Hemisphere,[398][399] and ranks third globally.[400][401][402] The extra seat in the stadium\'s capacity is said to be \"reserved\" for former head coach Fritz Crisler.[403] Prior to the construction of Michigan Stadium in 1927, the football team played their home games at Regents Field. In 1902, Dexter M. Ferry donated land adjacent to Regents Field, and the entire complex was renamed Ferry Field. Ferry Field served as the home stadium for the football team until the opening of Michigan Stadium. Today, Ferry Field serves as a tailgating space for Michigan Stadium during football games.
Fight songs and chants
Singing The Yellow and the Blue between halves of the Penn Game, November 1916The Michigan fight song, \"The Victors\", was written by student Louis Elbel in 1898. The song was declared by John Philip Sousa to be \"the greatest college fight song ever written.\"[404] The song refers to the teams as being \"the Champions of the West\". At the time, the Big Ten Conference was known as the Western Conference.
Although mainly used at sporting events, the Michigan fight song is often heard at other events as well. U.S. President Gerald Ford had it played by the United States Marine Band as his entrance anthem during his term as president from 1974 to 1977, in preference over the more traditional \"Hail to the Chief\",[405] and the Michigan Marching Band performed a slow-tempo variation of the fight song at his funeral.[406] The fight song is also sung during graduation commencement ceremonies. The university\'s alma mater song is \"The Yellow and Blue\". A common rally cry is \"Let\'s Go Blue!\" which has a complementary short musical arrangement written by former students Joseph Carl, a sousaphonist, and Albert Ahronheim, a drum major.[407]
Before \"The Victors\" was officially the university\'s fight song, the song \"There\'ll Be a Hot Time in the Old Town Tonight\" was considered to be the school song.[408] After Michigan temporarily withdrew from the Western Conference in 1907, a new Michigan fight song, \"Varsity\", was written in 1911 because the line \"champions of the West\" was no longer appropriate.[409]
AccomplishmentsThe Michigan football program ranks first in NCAA history in total wins (1,004 through the end of the 2023 season) and tied for 1st among FBS schools in winning percentage (.734).[410][411] The team won the first Rose Bowl game in 1902. the university had 40 consecutive winning seasons from 1968 to 2007, including consecutive bowl game appearances from 1975 to 2007.[412] The Wolverines have won a record 45 Big Ten championships. The program claims 12 national championships,[413][414] most recently winning the 2024 National Championship Game,[415] and has produced three Heisman Trophy winners: Tom Harmon, Desmond Howard, and Charles Woodson.[416]
The men\'s ice hockey team, which plays at Yost Ice Arena, has won nine national championships.[417]
The men\'s basketball team, which plays at the Crisler Center, has appeared in five Final Fours and won the national championship in 1989. The program also voluntarily vacated victories from its 1992–1993 and 1995–1999 seasons in which illicit payments to players took place, as well as its 1992 and 1993 Final Four appearances.[418] The men\'s basketball team has most recently won back-to-back Big Ten Tournament Championships.
More than 250 Michigan athletes or coaches have participated in Olympic events,[419] and as of 2021 its students and alumni have won 155 Olympic medals.[420] Through the 2012 Summer Olympics, 275 Michigan students and coaches had participated in the Olympics, winning medals in each Summer Olympic Games except 1896, and winning gold medals in all but four Olympiads. the university\'s students/student-coaches (e.g., notably, Michael Phelps) have won a total of 185 Olympic medals: 85 golds, 48 silvers, and 52 bronzes.[421]
In 10 of the past 14 years concluding in 2009, the university has finished in the top five of the NACDA Director\'s Cup, a ranking compiled by the National Association of Collegiate Directors of Athletics to tabulate the success of universities in competitive sports. The university has finished in the top 10 of the Directors\' Cup standings in 21 of the award\'s 29 seasons between 1993–2021 and has placed in the top six in nine of the last 10 seasons.[422]
MuseumsFor a more comprehensive list, see List of museums and collections at the University of Michigan.
Newberry Hall (Kelsey Museum of Archeology)The university is also home to several public and research museums including but not limited to the University Museum of Art, University of Michigan Museum of Natural History, Detroit Observatory, Sindecuse Museum of Dentistry, and the LSA Museum of Anthropological Archaeology.
Kelsey Museum of Archeology has a collection of Roman, Greek, Egyptian, and Middle Eastern artifacts.[423] Between 1972 and 1974, the museum was involved in the excavation of the archaeological site of Dibsi Faraj in northern Syria.[424] The Kelsey Museum re-opened November 1, 2009, after a renovation and expansion.[425]
The collection of the University of Michigan Museum of Art include nearly 19,000 objects that span cultures, eras, and media and include European, American, Middle Eastern, Asian, and African art, as well as changing exhibits. The Museum of Art re-opened in 2009 after a three-year renovation and expansion.[426] UMMA presents special exhibitions and diverse educational programs featuring the visual, performing, film and literary arts that contextualize the gallery experience.[427]
The University of Michigan Museum of Natural History began in the mid-19th century and expanded greatly with the donation of 60,000 specimens by Joseph Beal Steere in the 1870s. The building also houses three research museums: the Museum of Anthropology, Museum of Paleontology. Today, the collections are primarily housed and displayed in the Ruthven Museums Building which was completed in 1928.[428]
Notable people
This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these messages)This article relies excessively on references to primary sources. (August 2025)This article may contain excessive or inappropriate references to self-published sources. (August 2025)Benefactors
Henry Ford (second from the left) at the dedication of Yost Field House in 1923The university was assisted in its formation in the 1810s by a Masonic lodge (Zion Lodge No. 1 F&AM), which provided much-needed financial support for its establishment.[429] Of the total amount subscribed to start the university, two-thirds came from the Masonic lodge and its members.[429] Since then, private donors have become an important source of funding for the university. Among the individuals who have made significant donations commemorated at the university are William Wilson Cook, Dexter Mason Ferry, the Ford family, the Nichols family, the Marsal Family, the Tisch Family, William Erastus Upjohn, John Stoughton Newberry, Clara Harrison Stranahan, William K. Brehm, William Morse Davidson, A. Alfred Taubman, Penny W. Stamps, and Ronald Weiser. The Zell Family Foundation, led by Sam and Helen Zell, has donated a total of $152 million to the university over the years.[430][431] Stephen M. Ross made a $200 million donation to the business school and athletic campus in 2013.[432] Ross made a separate $100 million contribution to the university in 2004.[433] Charles Munger pledged $110 million in 2013 for a graduate residence and fellowships.[434] In 2024, the Hong Kong-based Li Ka Shing Foundation endowed a professorship at the university to support research in biomedical engineering.[435]
FacultyFor a more comprehensive list, see List of University of Michigan faculty and staff.The university employs 8,189 faculty members,[436][437] of whom 3,195 are tenured or on a tenure track.[436] Among them, there are 37 members of the National Academy of Sciences,[438] 62 members of the National Academy of Medicine,[439] 30 members of the National Academy of Engineering,[440] 89 Sloan Research Fellows,[441] 17 Guggenheim Fellows,[442] 99 members of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences,[443] and 17 members of the American Philosophical Society.[444][445] The university\'s current and former faculty includes thirteen Nobel laureates, eight Pulitzer Prize winners, three David M. Holland Medal winners, and one John Bates Clark Medal recipient.
Current faculty include physicists Mark Newman, Duncan G. Steel, Steven Cundiff, Stephen Forrest, and Gordon Kane; mathematicians Hyman Bass, Sergey Fomin, William Fulton, Robert Griess, and Melvin Hochster; chemist Melanie Sanford; Pulitzer Prize-winning historian Heather Ann Thompson; National Medal of Science recipients Huda Akil and Robert Axelrod; biostatistician Gonçalo Abecasis; philosophers Elizabeth S. Anderson, Allan Gibbard, and Peter Railton; and social psychologist Richard E. Nisbett. The faculty also includes feminist legal theorist Catharine MacKinnon, Strict Scrutiny co-host Leah Litman, engineer James P. Bagian, and A. Galip Ulsoy, co-inventor of the Reconfigurable Manufacturing System.Photograph of Joseph Brodsky teaching at the University of MichiganPhilosophers who were members of the faculty include pragmatists John Dewey, Charles Horton Cooley, and George H. Mead, along with analytic philosophers William Frankena and Cooper Harold Langford. The faculty included notable writers such as Nobel Prize-winning essayist Joseph Brodsky, Pulitzer Prize-winning poet W. H. Auden, and Robert Frost, the only poet to receive four Pulitzer Prizes for Poetry.
Notable faculty in physics have included Donald A. Glaser, the inventor of the bubble chamber; Samuel Goudsmit and George Uhlenbeck, discoverers of electron spin; Juris Upatnieks and Emmett Leith, inventors of 3D holography; Gérard Mourou, inventor of chirped pulse amplification; and H. Richard Crane, who was called \"one of the most distinguished experimental physicists of the 20th century\". Wolfgang Pauli, a pioneer of quantum physics, served as a visiting professor at the university in 1931 and again in 1941. Physicists Martin Lewis Perl and Lawrence W. Jones served as co-advisors to Nobel laureate Samuel C. C. Ting at the university. Perl himself was also awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1995 for his discovery of the tau lepton. Other distinguished physicists who have served on the faculty include Martinus Veltman, Carl Wieman, and Charles H. Townes. Notable mathematicians Raoul Bott, Richard Brauer, Samuel Eilenberg (co-founder of category theory), Frederick Gehring, Herman Goldstine, and Anatol Rapoport have all served on the faculty.
In medicine, notable individuals who have served on the faculty include the former director of the National Institutes of Health Francis Collins, the developer of the polio vaccine Jonas Salk, Nobel Prize–winning physiologist Charles B. Huggins, co-discoverer of tumour-inducing viruses Peyton Rous, geneticist James V. Neel, neuroanatomist Elizabeth C. Crosby, and co-discoverer of restriction enzymes Hamilton O. Smith.
Past faculty have also included \"the founding father of 21st-century sociology\" Charles Tilly, social psychologist Robert Zajonc, chemical engineer Donald L. Katz, Supreme Court justice Henry Billings Brown, Pulitzer Prize-winning composer Leslie Bassett, Pulitzer Prize-winning photographer David C. Turnley, Nobel Prize-winning economist Lawrence R. Klein, and John Bates Clark Medal recipient Kenneth E. Boulding.
Robert FrostRobert FrostJohn DeweyJohn DeweyCharles H. TownesCharles H. TownesElizabeth C. CrosbyElizabeth C. CrosbyFrancis CollinsFrancis CollinsGérard MourouGérard MourouAlumni
This section may be too long to read and navigate comfortably. Consider splitting content into sub-articles, condensing it, or adding subheadings. Please discuss this issue on the article\'s talk page. (March 2025)For a more comprehensive list, see List of University of Michigan alumni.Michigan alumni include nine Nobel laureates,[446] two Abel Prize winners (Isadore M. Singer and Karen Uhlenbeck), two Fields Medalists (June Huh and Stephen Smale), 31 MacArthur Fellows, and 35 Pulitzer Prize winners. By alumni count, Michigan ranks fifth as of 2018, among all universities whose alumni have won Pulitzers.
Mathematics and sciences
Jerome KarleClaude Shannon,[447] who laid the foundations of the Information Age, ranks among the most distinguished mathematicians from the university. Two Fields medalists Stephen Smale and June Huh, both completed their Ph.D.s in Mathematics at Michigan. Isadore Singer, the Abel Prize-winning mathematician who helped prove the Atiyah–Singer index theorem, studied physics at the university during World War II. Karen Uhlenbeck, the first woman to win the Abel Prize, received her bachelor\'s degree from the university in 1964. George Dantzig, who developed linear programming, studied at Michigan under G.Y. Rainich, R.L. Wilder, and T.H. Hildebrandt. Other mathematicians from the university include Kenneth Ira Appel, who, along with Wolfgang Haken, solved the famous Four Color Theorem; Leonard Jimmie Savage, who was known for his contributions to Bayesian statistics and decision theory; and Carl R. de Boor, a renowned mathematician in numerical analysis.
In physics, Nobel laureate Samuel C. C. Ting, who discovered the J/ψ particle, studied under Martin Lewis Perl, another Nobel-winning physicist who discovered the tau lepton, at the university. Chemist Jerome Karle, who revealed molecular structures, completed his Ph.D. in Physics at Michigan in 1943. His wife, Isabella Karle, an alumna, developed techniques to extract plutonium chloride from plutonium oxide mixtures. Other alumni include nuclear physicist Robert Bacher, a leader of the Manhattan Project; Richard Smalley, who discovered fullerenes; Moses Gomberg, a pioneer in radical chemistry, who later became a professor at the university and taught Frank Spedding, who led the development of the Ames process in the Manhattan Project.
Alumni in biology and medicine include Marshall Warren Nirenberg, famous for breaking the genetic code, who received his Ph.D. in biochemistry from the university in 1957; Stanley Cohen, who discovered growth factors; and John Jacob Abel, regarded as the father of pharmacology, who studied under the university\'s physiologist Henry Sewall in 1883. Other alumni include Raymond Pearl, a founder of biogerontology, and David Botstein, a leader of the Human Genome Project.
Other notable alumni in science include Edgar F. Codd, who developed the relational model of data and completed his Ph.D. at Michigan, and computer scientist Michael Stonebraker, who also made contributions to database research. Both Codd and Stonebraker are Turing Award winners.
Law and governmentFor a more comprehensive list, see List of University of Michigan law and government alumni.
U.S. President Gerald Ford wears a \"Michigan #1\" sweater during the kick-off of Ford\'s 1976 presidential campaign at the University of Michigan\'s campus in Ann ArborThe university boasts several holders or candidates of the United States presidency, including Gerald Ford,[448] the 38th president and the Republican Party\'s nominee for president in 1976; Thomas E. Dewey,[449] who was the Republican Party\'s nominee for president in both 1944 and 1948; Arthur LeSueur, a Socialist candidate for president in 1916; Gilbert Hitchcock, a Democratic candidate in 1928; Arthur Vandenberg, a Republican presidential hopeful in 1948; Ben Carson,[450] a Republican candidate in 2016; and Larry Elder, a Republican candidate in 2024. John Worth Kern and Burton K. Wheeler both ran for the vice presidency, with Kern representing the Democratic Party alongside William Jennings Bryan in 1908, and Wheeler as a Progressive Party\'s nominee with Robert La Follette Sr. in 1924.
Among the 23 former governors of Michigan who hold formal college degrees, 10 are graduates of the university. (Woodbridge N. Ferris only attended for a year) As of 2021, the university has matriculated 63 U.S. governors or lieutenant governors, including former Governor of Michigan Rick Snyder,[451] first female lieutenant governor of Missouri Harriett Woods, and former Governor of California Culbert Olson.[452] More than 250 Michigan graduates have served as legislators as either a United States Senator (48 graduates) or as a Congressional representative (over 215 graduates), including former House Majority Leader Dick Gephardt,[453] U.S. Representative Justin Amash.[454] Former Los Angeles Mayor Richard Riordan,[455] former Chicago Mayor Lori Lightfoot,[456] and Detroit Mayor Mike Duggan[457] are also Michigan graduates.
Michigan graduates have held a range of cabinet-level positions, including United States Secretary of State (William Rufus Day[458]); United States Secretary of the Treasury (George M. Humphrey[459]); United States Attorney General (Harry Micajah Daugherty[460]); United States Secretary of the Interior (Kenneth Lee Salazar[461]); United States Secretary of Agriculture (Clinton Anderson,[462] Julius Sterling Morton,[463] Arthur M. Hyde,[464] and Dan Glickman[465]); United States Secretary of Commerce (Roy D. Chapin[466] and Robert P. Lamont[467]); United States Secretary of Health and Human Services (Tom Price[468]); and Director of the United States Office of Management and Budget (Rob Portman[469]). Multiple alumni served in the judicial branch of the U.S. government, including William Rufus Day,[458] Frank Murphy,[470] and George Sutherland,[471] all of whom served as Supreme Court justices. As of 2019, the university has placed onto various State Supreme Courts over 125 graduates, 40 of whom served as Chief Justice.
Foreign alumni include the Prime Minister of Singapore (Lawrence Wong[472]); the current ruler of the Emirate of Ras Al Khaimah (Saud bin Saqr Al Qasimi[473]); the 51st Prime Minister of Italy (Lamberto Dini); the Prime Minister of Antigua and Barbuda 1994–2004 (Lester Bird); the 47th President of Costa Rica (Luis Guillermo Solís); the Prime Minister of Peru 1993–1994 (Alfonso Bustamante); the Prime Minister of Jordan 2012–2016 (Abdullah Ensour[474]); the 13th President of Pakistan (Arif Alvi[475]); Chief Secretary of Hong Kong 2007–2011 (Henry Tang Ying-yen[476]); Deputy Prime Minister of South Korea 2017–2018 (Kim Dong-yeon); Deputy Prime Minister of Bulgaria in the government of Boyko Borisov (Simeon Djankov); Deputy Prime Minister of Madagascar 1997–1998 (Herizo Razafimahaleo). British Members of Parliament Terry Davis and Howard Flight are also Michigan graduates. As of 2022, Michigan has matriculated 64 Ambassadors who served as Ambassador in more than 72 countries.
Engineering and technologyFor a more comprehensive list, see List of University of Michigan alumni § Computers, engineering, and technology.Many alumni have made significant contributions to the fields of engineering and technology, including Clarence \"Kelly\" Johnson[477] and Joseph Francis Shea, a key figure in the Apollo program, earned his Ph.D. in 1955. The university produced numerous developers and original authors of widely recognized software programs, such as Thomas Knoll[478] (original author of Adobe Photoshop); Mike Engelhardt[479] (original author of LTspice); Niels Provos[480] (creator of Bcrypt); and Sid Meier[481] (creator of video games series Civilization).
Business and financeFor a more comprehensive list, see List of University of Michigan business alumni.
George Getty, patriarch of the Getty family, earned his juris doctor from the law school in 1882Michigan alumni have founded or cofounded many prominent companies, such as Alphabet Inc. (Larry Page[482]), Johnson & Johnson (Edward Mead Johnson[483]), Abbott Laboratories (Wallace Calvin Abbott), Stryker Corporation (Homer Stryker[484]), Emerson Electric Company (John Wesley Emerson), Loews Corporation (Preston Robert Tisch[485]), Devon Energy (J. Larry Nichols[486]), Merrill Lynch (Charles Edward Merrill[487]), Leidos as SAIC (J. Robert Beyster[488]), Rocket Mortgage (Gary Gilbert[489]), Domino\'s (Tom Monaghan[490]), H&R Block (Henry W. Bloch[491]), Related Companies (Stephen M. Ross[492]), Admiral Group (Henry Engelhardt[493]), Akamai Technologies (Randall Kaplan), Five Guys Enterprises (Jerry Murrell[494] ), Dart Container Corporation (William A. Dart[495]), and Groupon (Eric Lefkofsky[496] and Brad Keywell[497])
The university counts several patriarchs of influential business dynasties, including George Getty of the renowned Getty family. The university also boasts a number of graduates from affluent families, including heirs and heiresses to major fortunes, such as Josiah K. Lilly Jr. (heir to Eli Lilly and Company); Charles Rudolph Walgreen Jr.[498] (heir to Walgreens); John Gideon Searle (heir to G. D. Searle); Doug Meijer[499] and Hank Meijer[500] (heirs to Meijer); Christopher Ilitch (heir to Ilitch Holdings, Inc.); and Kenneth B. Dart (heir to Dart Container Corporation). Raoul Wallenberg, a member of the prominent Wallenberg family, one of the wealthiest families in the world, studied at the university in 1931.[501]
As of May 2024, about 2.8% of all Fortune 1000 executives with MBAs are alumni from Michigan Ross, ranking it as the 6th highest among all business schools in the United States.[502][503] Alumni have led several companies, including Berkshire Hathaway (Charlie Munger[504]), Ford (James Hackett[505]), General Motors (Roger Smith, Frederick Henderson, and Richard C. Gerstenberg[506]), State Farm Insurance (Jon Farney[507]), Citigroup (John C. Dugan[508]), Tencent (Martin Lau[509]), The Boeing Company (Edgar Gott[510]), Wells Fargo (Timothy J. Sloan[511]), Allstate Corp. (Thomas J. Wilson[503]), American Airlines (Robert Isom[503]), PNC Financial Services (William S. Demchak[512]), General Mills (Stephen Sanger[513]), Turkish Airlines (Temel Kotil[514]), International Paper (John V. Faraci[515]), KB Financial Group (Euh Yoon-dae[516]), Chrysler Group LLC (C. Robert Kidder[517]), BorgWarner Inc. (Timothy M. Manganello[518]), Bunzl (Michael Roney[519]), Celanese (David N. Weidman[520]), JetBlue (Dave Barger[521]), Restaurant Brands International (J. Patrick Doyle[522]), and Bain Capital (Edward Conard[523]).
LiteratureNotable writers who attended the university include playwright Arthur Miller,[453] essayists Susan Orlean,[453] Jia Tolentino,[524] Sven Birkerts, journalists and editors Mike Wallace,[453] Jonathan Chait of The New Republic, Indian author and columnist Anees Jung, Daniel Okrent,[453] and Sandra Steingraber, food critics Ruth Reichl and Gael Greene, novelists Brett Ellen Block, Elizabeth Kostova, Marge Piercy,[453] Brad Meltzer,[453] Betty Smith,[453] and Charles Major, screenwriter Judith Guest,[453] Pulitzer Prize-winning poet Theodore Roethke, National Book Award winners Keith Waldrop and Jesmyn Ward, composer/author/puppeteer Forman Brown, Alireza Jafarzadeh (a Middle East analyst, author, and TV commentator), and memoirist and self-help book author Jerry Newport.
Music and theatreMusical graduates include operatic soprano Jessye Norman,[453] singer Joe Dassin, multiple members of the bands Tally Hall and Vulfpeck, jazz guitarist Randy Napoleon, and Mannheim Steamroller founder Chip Davis.[453] Well-known composers who are alumni include Frank Ticheli, Andrew Lippa, and the Oscar and Tony Award-winning duo Benj Pasek and Justin Paul. Pop superstar Madonna[453] and rock legend Iggy Pop[453] attended but did not graduate.
In Hollywood, famous alumni include actors Michael Dunn,[453] Darren Criss, James Earl Jones,[453] and David Alan Grier;[453] actresses Lucy Liu,[453] Gilda Radner,[453] and Selma Blair[453] as well as television director Mark Cendrowski and filmmaker Lawrence Kasdan.[453] Many Broadway and musical theatre actors, including Gavin Creel,[453] Andrew Keenan-Bolger, his sister Celia Keenan-Bolger, and Taylor Louderman attended U-M for musical theatre. Emmy Award winner Sanjay Gupta attended both college and medical school at the university.[525] Conservative pundit Ann Coulter is another U-M law school graduate (J.D. 1988).[453]
SportsU-M athletes have starred in Major League Baseball, the National Football League and National Basketball Association as well as in other professional sports. Notable among recent players is Tom Brady of the New England Patriots and the Tampa Bay Buccaneers.[453] Three players have won college football\'s Heisman Trophy, awarded to the player considered the best in the nation: Tom Harmon (1940), Desmond Howard (1991), and Charles Woodson (1997).[416] Professional golfer John Schroeder and Olympic swimmer Michael Phelps also attended the University of Michigan; the latter studied Sports Marketing and Management. Phelps also swam competitively for Club Wolverine, a swimming club associated with the university.[526] Israeli Olympic swimmer Gal Cohen Groumi has also competed for the Wolverines. The Canada national team\'s Shelina Zadorsky played soccer at the University of Michigan.[527]
National Hockey League players Marty Turco, Luke Hughes, Quinn Hughes, Chris Summers, Max Pacioretty, Carl Hagelin, Dylan Larkin, Zach Hyman, Brendan Morrison,[453] Jack Johnson, and Michael Cammalleri[453] all played for U-M\'s ice hockey team. MLB Hall of Famers George Sisler and Barry Larkin also played baseball at the university.[453] Several team owners have been alumni, including multiple-team owner Bill Davidson (NBA Detroit Pistons, NHL Tampa Bay Lightning, WNBA Detroit Shock, among others) and NFL owners Stephen M. Ross (Miami Dolphins), Preston Robert Tisch (New York Giants), and Ralph Wilson (Buffalo Bills).
Activists and humanitariansActivists associated with the university include Weather Underground radical activist Bill Ayers,[528] activist Tom Hayden,[453] architect Charles Moore,[529] Swedish hero of the Holocaust Raoul Wallenberg,[530] Civil War General Benjamin D. Pritchard,[531] assisted-suicide advocate Jack Kevorkian, and domestic eco-terrorist Ted Kaczynski (The Unabomber).
ExplorationSeveral astronauts attended Michigan including the all-U-M crews of both Gemini 4,[532] and Apollo 15.[533] The university claims the only alumni association with a chapter on the Moon, established in 1971 when the crew of Apollo 15 placed a charter plaque for a new U-M Alumni Association on the lunar surface.[453][533]
Ann Arbor is a city in Washtenaw County, Michigan, United States, of which it is the county seat. It had a population of 123,851 in 2020.
The city is home to the University of Michigan, the oldest university in the state. Its economy is primarily focused on high technology, with numerous startup companies drawn to the area due to the university\'s robust research and development activities.[8]
Founded in 1824 with American settlers from the East Coast, it was incorporated as a city in 1851. The city is located on the Huron River. It is the principal city of its metropolitan area, and it is also included in the Detroit–Warren–Ann Arbor combined statistical area as well as the Great Lakes megalopolis.
HistoryMain article: History of Ann Arbor, MichiganBefore founding as Ann ArborThe region was once inhabited by several Native American tribes, the most prominent being the Anishinaabe people of the Three Fires: the Odawa, Ojibwe, and Potawatomi. The Potawatomi founded two villages in the area of what is now Ann Arbor in about 1774.[9] Other tribes that inhabited the area included the Meskwaki, Wyandots, and Sauk.[10] These peoples established several trails that converged on present-day Ann Arbor. The land that included Washtenaw County was ceded to the U.S. by the Odawa, Ojibwe, Potawatomi, and Wyandot in the Treaty of Detroit of 1807.[11]
19th centuryAnn Arbor was founded in 1824 by land speculators John Allen and Elisha Walker Rumsey.[12][13] On May 25, 1824, the town plat was registered with Wayne County as the Village of Annarbour, the earliest known use of the town\'s name.[14][15] Allen and Rumsey decided to name it for their wives, both named Ann, and for the stands of bur oak in the 640 acres (260 ha) of land they purchased for $800 (equivalent to $23,000 in 2024[16]) from the federal government at $1.25 per acre.[17] The local Ojibwa named the settlement kaw-goosh-kaw-nick, after the sound of Allen\'s sawmill.[18]
Ann Arbor became the seat of Washtenaw County in 1827[19] and was incorporated as a village in 1833.[20] The Ann Arbor Land Company, a group of speculators, set aside 40 acres (16 ha) of undeveloped land and offered it to the state of Michigan as the site of the state capitol, but lost the offer to Lansing. In 1837, the property was accepted instead as the site of the University of Michigan.[21]
A black-and-white photograph of Main Street in Ann ArborMain Street in Ann Arbor c. 1908A black-and-white photograph of a crowd of men are standing in a semi-circle around Grover Cleveland. A train car is visible in the top-left corner of the photograph.President Grover Cleveland at the Ann Arbor station in 1892, with a crowd that included Mayor William Doty and University President James B. AngellSince the university\'s establishment in the city in 1837, the histories of the University of Michigan and Ann Arbor have been closely linked.[22] The town became a regional transportation hub in 1839 with the arrival of the Michigan Central Railroad, and a north–south railway connecting Ann Arbor to Toledo and other markets to the south was established in 1878.[23] Throughout the 1840s and the 1850s settlers continued to come to Ann Arbor. While the earlier settlers were primarily of British ancestry, the newer settlers also consisted of Germans, Irish,[24] and Black people.[25] In 1851, Ann Arbor was chartered as a city,[26] though the city showed a drop in population during the Depression of 1873.[23] It was not until the early 1880s that Ann Arbor again saw robust growth,[27] with new immigrants from Greece, Italy, Russia, and Poland.[28]
20th centuryAnn Arbor saw increased growth in manufacturing, particularly in milling.[28] Ann Arbor\'s Jewish community also grew after the turn of the 20th century, and its first and oldest synagogue, Beth Israel Congregation, was established in 1916.[29]
Following a 1956 vote, the city of East Ann Arbor merged with Ann Arbor to encompass the eastern sections of the city.[30]
In 1960, Ann Arbor voters approved a $2.3 million bond issue (equivalent to $18 million in 2023[31]) to build the current city hall, which was designed by architect Alden B. Dow. The City Hall opened in 1963. In 1995, the building was renamed the Guy C. Larcom Jr. Municipal Building in honor of the longtime city administrator who championed the building\'s construction.[32]
During the 1960s and 1970s, the city gained a reputation as an important center for liberal politics. Ann Arbor also became a locus for left-wing activism and anti-Vietnam War movement, as well as the student movement. The first major meetings of the national left-wing campus group Students for a Democratic Society took place in Ann Arbor in 1960; in 1965, the city was home to the first U.S. teach-in against the Vietnam War.[33] During the ensuing 15 years, many countercultural and New Left enterprises sprang up and developed large constituencies within the city.[34] These influences washed into municipal politics during the early and mid-1970s when three members of the Human Rights Party (HRP) won city council seats on the strength of the student vote. During their time on the council, HRP representatives fought for measures including pioneering antidiscrimination ordinances, measures decriminalizing marijuana possession, and a rent-control ordinance.[35]
A photograph of a train and several tracks of railroad in front of the Ann Arbor station.Ann Arbor station in 1975Two religious-conservative institutions were created in Ann Arbor; the Word of God (established in 1967), a charismatic inter-denominational movement;[29] and the Thomas More Law Center (established in 1999).[36] Since 1998, Ann Arbor is also the home office of the Anthroposophical Society in the United States, an organization dedicated to supporting the community of those interested in the inner path of schooling known as anthroposophy, developed by Rudolf Steiner.[37]
21st centuryIn the past several decades, Ann Arbor has grappled with the effects of sharply rising land values, gentrification, and urban sprawl stretching into outlying countryside.[38] On November 4, 2003, voters approved a greenbelt plan under which the city government bought development rights on agricultural parcels of land adjacent to Ann Arbor to preserve them from sprawling development.[39] Since then, a vociferous local debate has hinged on how and whether to accommodate and guide development within city limits.[40] Ann Arbor consistently ranks in the \"top places to live\" lists published by various mainstream media outlets every year.[41]
See captionProQuest\'s headquarters on Eisenhower Parkway in Ann ArborIn 2016, the city changed mayoral terms from two years to four.[42] Until 2017, City Council held annual elections in which half of the seats (one from each ward) were elected to 2-year terms. These elections were staggered, with each ward having one of its seats up for election in odd years and its other seat up for election in even years. Beginning in 2018 the city council has had staggered elections to 4-year terms in even years. This means that half of the members (one from each ward) are elected in presidential election years, while the other half are elected in mid-term election years. To facilitate this change in scheduling, the 2017 election elected members to terms that lasted 3-years.[43]
In 2020, partly as a response to the COVID-19 pandemic, the city government opened several downtown streets to pedestrians, limiting their use by motor vehicles to emergency vehicles during summertime weekends. In addition to providing a large pedestrian mall, these changes allow restaurants to use more of the sidewalks and part of the street for outdoor seating.[44] These changes were popular enough that in 2021 the city council extended the dates from March to November, continuing the schedule of cordoning off cars from Thursday evening until Monday morning.[45][46]
GeographyAnn Arbor is located along the Huron River, which flows southeast through the city on its way to Lake Erie. It is the central core of the Ann Arbor, MI Metropolitan Statistical Area, which consists of the whole of Washtenaw County, but is also a part of the Metro Detroit Combined Statistical Area designated by the U.S. Census Bureau.[47] While it borders only Townships, the built-up nature of the sections of Pittsfield and Ypsilanti townships between Ann Arbor and the city of Ypsilanti make the two effectively a single urban area.[48][49]
LandscapeA photograph of Huron River, with trees lining the banks of the river.Huron RiverThe landscape of Ann Arbor consists of hills and valleys, with the terrain becoming steeper near the Huron River. The elevation ranges from about 750 feet (230 m) along the Huron River to 1,015 feet (309 m) on the city\'s west side, near the intersection of Maple Road and Pauline Blvd.[50] Ann Arbor Municipal Airport, which is south of the city at 42°13.38′N 83°44.74′W, has an elevation of 839 feet (256 m).[51] Ann Arbor is nicknamed \"Tree Town\", both due to its name and to the dense forestation of its parks and residential areas. The city contains more than 50,000 trees along its streets and an equal number in parks.[52] Into the early 2000s, the emerald ash borer has destroyed many of the city\'s approximately 10,500 ash trees.[53]
The city contains over 160 municipal parks ranging from small neighborhood green spots to large recreation areas such as Buhr Park.[54] Several large city parks and a university park border sections of the Huron River.[55] Fuller Recreation Area, near the University Hospital complex, contains sports fields, pedestrian and bike paths, and swimming pools. Opened in the summer of 2014, the city-funded Ann Arbor Skatepark is a 30,000 sq ft (2,787.1 m2) skatepark located within Veterans Memorial Park.[56] The city is also home to the Washtenaw County-owned County Farm Park. The Nichols Arboretum, owned by the University of Michigan, is a 123-acre (50 ha) arboretum that contains hundreds of plant and tree species. It is on the city\'s east side, near the university\'s Central Campus.[57] Located across the Huron River just beyond the university\'s North Campus is the university\'s Matthaei Botanical Gardens, which contains 300 acres of gardens and a large tropical conservatory.[58] Several other green spaces around Ann Arbor are privately owned or owned by government agencies such as Ann Arbor Public Schools.[59][60]
CityscapeA color photograph of the front facade of First Congregational ChurchFirst Congregational ChurchThe cityscape of Ann Arbor is heavily influenced by the University of Michigan, with 22% of downtown and 9.4% of the total land owned by the university.[61][62] The downtown Central Campus contains some of the oldest extant structures in the city—including the President\'s House, built in 1840—and separates the South University District from the other three downtown commercial districts.[63][64] These other three districts, Kerrytown, State Street, and Main Street are contiguous near the northwestern corner of the university.[65]
Major landmarks in downtown Ann Arbor include the Michigan Theater, The Diag, and Tower Plaza, a 26-story condominium building that is the city\'s tallest building.[66] Downtown is also home to several Fairy Doors and other public art installations.[67]
Three commercial areas south of downtown include the areas near I-94 and Ann Arbor-Saline Road, Briarwood Mall, and the South Industrial area. Other commercial areas include the Arborland/Washtenaw Avenue and Packard Road merchants on the east side, the Plymouth Road area in the northeast, and the Westgate/West Stadium areas on the west side.[68] Downtown contains a mix of 19th- and early-20th-century structures and modern-style buildings, as well as a farmers\' market in the Kerrytown district.[69] The city\'s commercial districts are composed mostly of two- to four-story structures, although downtown and the area near Briarwood Mall contain a small number of high-rise buildings.[70]
Ann Arbor\'s residential neighborhoods contain architectural styles ranging from classic 19th- and early 20th-century designs to ranch-style houses. Among these homes are a number of kit houses built in the early 20th century. Contemporary-style houses are farther from the downtown district.[68] Surrounding the University of Michigan campus are houses and apartment complexes occupied primarily by student renters. The 19th-century buildings and streetscape of the Old West Side neighborhood have been preserved virtually intact; in 1972, the district was listed on the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP), and it is further protected by city ordinances and a nonprofit preservation group.[71]
ClimateAnn Arbor has a typically Midwestern humid continental climate (Köppen Dfa), which is influenced by the Great Lakes. There are four distinct seasons: winters are cold and snowy, with average highs around 34 °F (1 °C). Summers are warm to hot and humid, with average highs around 81 °F (27 °C) and with slightly more precipitation. Spring and autumn are transitional between the two. The area experiences lake effect weather, primarily in the form of increased cloudiness during late fall and early winter.[72] The monthly daily average temperature in July is 72.6 °F (22.6 °C), while the same figure for January is 24.5 °F (−4.2 °C). Temperatures reach or exceed 90 °F (32 °C) on 10 days, and drop to or below 0 °F (−18 °C) on 4.6 nights. Precipitation tends to be the heaviest during the summer months, but most frequent during winter. Snowfall, which normally occurs from November to April but occasionally starts in October, averages 58 inches (147 cm) per season. The lowest recorded temperature was −23 °F (−31 °C) on February 11, 1885, and the highest recorded temperature was 105 °F (41 °C) on July 24, 1934.[73]
Climate data for Ann Arbor, Michigan (UMich, 1991–2020 normals, extremes 1881–present)Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec YearRecord high °F (°C) 72(22) 68(20) 85(29) 88(31) 95(35) 103(39) 105(41) 104(40) 99(37) 91(33) 78(26) 67(19) 105(41)Mean maximum °F (°C) 51.7(10.9) 53.7(12.1) 68.2(20.1) 78.0(25.6) 86.4(30.2) 91.7(33.2) 92.7(33.7) 91.4(33.0) 88.7(31.5) 80.5(26.9) 65.5(18.6) 54.3(12.4) 94.3(34.6)Mean daily maximum °F (°C) 31.9(−0.1) 35.4(1.9) 46.2(7.9) 59.7(15.4) 71.4(21.9) 80.1(26.7) 83.7(28.7) 81.7(27.6) 75.1(23.9) 62.2(16.8) 48.0(8.9) 36.3(2.4) 59.3(15.2)Daily mean °F (°C) 24.0(−4.4) 26.5(−3.1) 35.7(2.1) 47.6(8.7) 59.0(15.0) 68.0(20.0) 71.9(22.2) 70.3(21.3) 63.3(17.4) 51.4(10.8) 39.2(4.0) 29.2(−1.6) 48.8(9.3)Mean daily minimum °F (°C) 16.2(−8.8) 17.7(−7.9) 25.2(−3.8) 35.5(1.9) 46.6(8.1) 55.9(13.3) 60.1(15.6) 58.8(14.9) 51.6(10.9) 40.7(4.8) 30.5(−0.8) 22.1(−5.5) 38.4(3.6)Mean minimum °F (°C) −1.5(−18.6) 1.1(−17.2) 8.5(−13.1) 22.8(−5.1) 33.9(1.1) 43.7(6.5) 50.3(10.2) 49.5(9.7) 38.4(3.6) 28.6(−1.9) 17.2(−8.2) 6.2(−14.3) −5.6(−20.9)Record low °F (°C) −22(−30) −23(−31) −8(−22) 7(−14) 20(−7) 35(2) 37(3) 39(4) 27(−3) 19(−7) −3(−19) −20(−29) −23(−31)Average precipitation inches (mm) 2.96(75) 2.51(64) 2.82(72) 3.44(87) 3.84(98) 3.91(99) 3.52(89) 3.52(89) 3.18(81) 2.99(76) 2.82(72) 2.75(70) 38.26(972)Average snowfall inches (cm) 18.3(46) 15.3(39) 8.3(21) 2.6(6.6) 0.0(0.0) 0.0(0.0) 0.0(0.0) 0.0(0.0) 0.0(0.0) 0.1(0.25) 4.1(10) 12.7(32) 61.4(156)Average precipitation days (≥ 0.01 in) 18.3 14.4 14.3 14.4 14.7 12.4 11.7 11.2 10.6 13.3 13.5 16.9 165.7Average snowy days (≥ 0.1 in) 15.2 12.1 7.5 2.8 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.4 4.9 11.5 54.5Source: NOAA[74][75]DemographicsHistorical populationCensus Pop. Note %±1860 5,097 —1870 7,363 44.5%1880 8,061 9.5%1890 9,431 17.0%1900 14,509 53.8%1910 14,817 2.1%1920 19,516 31.7%1930 26,944 38.1%1940 29,815 10.7%1950 48,251 61.8%1960 67,340 39.6%1970 100,035 48.6%1980 107,969 7.9%1990 109,592 1.5%2000 114,024 4.0%2010 113,934 −0.1%2020 123,851 8.7%2024 (est.) 122,925 −0.7%Before 1860[76]1900–2000[77]U.S. Census Bureau[78][4]
Map of racial distribution in Ann Arbor, 2020 U.S. census. Each dot is one person: ⬤ White ⬤ Black ⬤ Asian ⬤ Hispanic ⬤ Multiracial ⬤ Native American/OtherAnn Arbor has seen consistent growth in population between all decennial censuses since 1860 with the exception of the 2010 census which reported almost no growth from the previous census. As of the 2020 U.S. census, there were 123,851 people and 49,337 households residing in the city, with a population density of 4,391.9 inhabitants per square mile (1,695.7/km2).[4] The racial makeup of the city including Hispanics in the racial categories was 67.6% White, 6.8% Black, 0.2% Native American, 15.7% Asian, 0.1% Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander, 1.8% from other races, and 7.9% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino residents of any race made up 5.5% of the population.[79] Ann Arbor has a small population of Arab Americans, including students as well as local Lebanese and Palestinians,[80] and a large community of Japanese nationals.[81]
According to the 2022 American Community Survey estimates, out of 49,337 households, 33.8% were married-couple households, 9.8% were cohabiting couple households, 26.1% had a male householder with no spouse present, and 30.4% had a female householder with no spouse present. 18.4% of the households had individuals under the age of 18 living in them, and 20.1% had individuals over age 65 living in them. The average household size was 2.22 people and the average family size was 2.78 people.[82] The median age was 25.9; 12.2% of the population was under age 18, and 12.3% was age 65 or older.[83] The percentage of city residents age 25 years or older with at least a high school degree was 97.8% while 77.5% had a bachelor\'s degree or higher, which is higher than the U.S. national percentage of 89.1% for persons age 25 years or older with at least a high school degree and 34.3% with a bachelor\'s degree or higher.[4]
The median household income in 2022 was $78,740 (versus the U.S. national figure of $75,149),[4] with family households having a median income of $126,292.[84] The per capita income for the city was $52,276, which is higher than the U.S. national per capita income of $41,261.[4] Males working full-time jobs had median earnings of $86,970 compared to $61,543 for females.[84] Out of the 109,973 people with a determined poverty status, 23.1% were below the poverty line compared to the U.S. national poverty rate of 11.1%;[4] the age group with the highest percentage below the poverty level was persons between 18 and 34 years at 43.0% while other age groups have percentages between 2.7% and 7.7%. Further, 3.5% of minors and 7.7% of seniors were below the poverty line.[85]
Historical racial composition 2020[86] 2010[87] 1990[88] 1970[88] 1940[88]White 67.6% 73.0% 82.0% 91% 95.5%—Non-Hispanic 65.9% 70.4% 80.4% - -Black or African American 6.8% 7.7% 9.0% 6.7% 4.1%Hispanic or Latino (of any race) 5.5% 4.1% 2.6% 1.3%[note 1] -Asian 15.7% 14.4% 7.7% 1.5% 0.3%CrimeAccording to the Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) program in 2022, Ann Arbor had 371 reported violent crimes (which include homicide, rape, robbery, and aggravated assault) and 2069 reported property crimes (which include arson, burglary, larceny-theft, and motor vehicle theft). With a violent crime rate of 309.5 per 100,000 people, the city\'s violent crime rate is lower than Michigan\'s rate of 461 per 100,000 people and the U.S. national rate of 380.7 per 100,000 people. However, Ann Arbor\'s property crime rate, at 1726.0 per 100,000 people, is higher than Michigan\'s property crime rate of 1536.8 per 100,000 people and lower than the U.S. national property crime rate of 1954.4 per 100,000 people.[89][note 2]
EconomyMain article: Economy in Ann Arbor, MichiganSee captionNickels Arcade interiorThe University of Michigan shapes Ann Arbor\'s economy significantly. It employs about 30,000 workers which includes about 12,000 in the medical center. Other employers are drawn to the area by the university\'s research and development money, and by its graduates. High tech, health services and biotechnology are other major components of the city\'s economy; numerous medical offices, laboratories, and associated companies are located in the city.[91] Automobile manufacturers, such as General Motors and Visteon, also employ residents.[92]
High tech companies have located in the area since the 1930s, when International Radio Corporation introduced the first mass-produced AC/DC radio (the Kadette, in 1931) as well as the first pocket radio (the Kadette Jr., in 1933).[93] Current firms include Arbor Networks (provider of Internet traffic engineering and security systems), Arbortext (provider of XML-based publishing software), JSTOR (the digital scholarly journal archive), Truven Health Analytics, and ProQuest, which includes UMI.[94] Duo Security, a cloud-based access security provider of two-factor authentication, is headquartered in Ann Arbor.[95] It was formerly a unicorn and continues to be headquartered in Ann Arbor after its acquisition by Cisco Systems.[96] In November 2021, semiconductor test equipment company KLA Corporation opened a new North American headquarters in Ann Arbor.[97]
Ann Arbor is the home to Internet2 and the Merit Network, a not-for-profit research and education computer network. Both are located in the South State Commons 2 building on South State Street.[98] The city is also home to a secondary office of Google\'s AdWords program—the company\'s primary revenue stream.[99] As of 2022, Ann Arbor is home to more than twenty video game and XR studios of varying sizes.[100] The city plays host to a regional chapter of the International Game Developers Association (IGDA) which hosts monthly meetups, presentations, and educational events.[101]
See captionCommercial buildings in Downtown Ann ArborThe city is the home of many research and engineering centers, including the Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory that is operated by NOAA and the Michigan Tech Research Institute.[102] Other research centers sited in the city are the United States Environmental Protection Agency\'s National Vehicle and Fuel Emissions Laboratory[103] and the Toyota Technical Center.[104] The city is also home to National Sanitation Foundation International (NSF International), the nonprofit non-governmental organization that develops generally accepted standards for a variety of public health related industries and subject areas.[105]
Non-high tech companies in Ann Arbor include Domino\'s Pizza, headquartered on Domino\'s Farms, a 271-acre (110 ha) Frank Lloyd Wright-inspired complex just northeast of the city.[106] Another Ann Arbor-based company is Zingerman\'s Delicatessen, which serves sandwiches and has developed businesses under a variety of brand names.[107] Avfuel, a global supplier of aviation fuels and services, is headquartered in Ann Arbor[108] as is Pinkerton, a detective and private security firm.[109] Many cooperative enterprises were founded in the city; among those that remain are the People\'s Food Co-op and the Inter-Cooperative Council at the University of Michigan, a student housing cooperative founded in 1937.[110] There are also three cohousing communities—Sunward, Great Oak, and Touchstone—located immediately to the west of the city limits.[111]
CultureMain article: Culture of Ann Arbor, MichiganSee captionMichigan Theater is the location of the Ann Arbor Film Festival, the Ann Arbor Symphony, and the Ann Arbor Concert BandSeveral performing arts groups and facilities are on the University of Michigan\'s campus, as are museums dedicated to art, archaeology, and natural history and sciences. Founded in 1879, the University Musical Society is an independent performing arts organization that presents over 60 events each year, bringing international artists in music, dance, and theater. Since 2001 Shakespeare in the Arb has presented one play by Shakespeare each June, in a large park near downtown.[112] Regional and local performing arts groups not associated with the university include the Ann Arbor Civic Theatre, the Arbor Opera Theater, the Ann Arbor Symphony Orchestra, The Ark,[113] and Performance Network Theatre.[114] State Theatre and the adjacent Michigan Theater are a movie palace and a performing arts center, respectively.[113] Another unique piece of artistic expression in Ann Arbor is the fairy doors. These small portals are examples of installation art and can be found throughout the downtown area.[115]
A photograph of the front and side facade of the Weinmann BlockThe Weinmann Block is listed on the NRHPThe Ann Arbor Hands-On Museum, an interactive science center, is located in a renovated and expanded historic downtown fire station.[116] The Ann Arbor Art Center is a nonprofit that organizes art activities and exhibitions.[117] Aside from the Ann Arbor District Library, which maintains four branch outlets in addition to its main downtown building, and being the home to the Gerald R. Ford Presidential Library,[118] Ann Arbor ranks first among U.S. cities in the number of booksellers and books sold per capita.[119]
Several annual events—many of them centered on performing and visual arts—draw visitors to Ann Arbor. One such event is the Ann Arbor Art Fairs, a set of four concurrent juried fairs held on downtown streets. Scheduled on Thursday through Sunday of the third week of July, the fairs draw upward of half a million visitors.[120] Another is the Ann Arbor Film Festival, held during the third week of March, which receives more than 2,500 submissions annually from more than 40 countries and serves as one of a handful of Academy Award–qualifying festivals in the United States.[121]
Ann Arbor has a long history of openness to marijuana, given Ann Arbor\'s decriminalization of cannabis, the large number of medical marijuana dispensaries in the city (one dispensary, called People\'s Co-op, was directly across the street from Michigan Stadium until zoning forced it to move one mile to the west), the large number of pro-marijuana residents, and the annual Hash Bash: an event that is held on the first Saturday of April. Until (at least) the successful passage of Michigan\'s medical marijuana law, the event had arguably strayed from its initial intent, although for years, a number of attendees have received serious legal responses due to marijuana use on University of Michigan property, which does not fall under the city\'s progressive and compassionate ticketing program.[122]
A person from Ann Arbor is called an \"Ann Arborite\", and many long-time residents call themselves \"townies\". The city itself is often called \"A²\" (\"A-squared\") or \"A2\" (\"A two\") or \"AA\", \"The Deuce\" (mainly by Chicagoans), and \"Tree Town\".[123] With tongue-in-cheek reference to the city\'s liberal political leanings, some occasionally refer to Ann Arbor as \"The People\'s Republic of Ann Arbor\"[124] or \"25 square miles surrounded by reality.\"[125] In A Prairie Home Companion broadcast from Ann Arbor, Garrison Keillor described Ann Arbor as \"a city where people discuss socialism, but only in the fanciest restaurants.\"[126] Ann Arbor sometimes appears on citation indexes as an author, instead of a location, often with the academic degree MI, a misunderstanding of the abbreviation for Michigan.[127]
SportsAnn Arbor is a major center for college sports, most notably at the University of Michigan. Several well-known college sports facilities exist in the city, including Michigan Stadium, the largest American football stadium and the third-largest stadium of any kind in the world with a capacity of 107,601.[128][129] The stadium is colloquially known as \"The Big House\" due to its status as the largest American football stadium.[130] Crisler Center and Yost Ice Arena play host to the school\'s basketball (both men\'s and women\'s) and ice hockey teams, respectively.[131] Concordia University, a member of the NAIA, also fields sports teams.[132]
In semi-professional sports Ann Arbor is represented in the NPSL by AFC Ann Arbor, a soccer club founded in 2014 who call themselves The Mighty Oak.[133]
GovernmentSee also: List of mayors of Ann Arbor, MichiganA photograph of the front facade of the Washtenaw County CourthouseWashtenaw County CourthouseAs the county seat of Washtenaw County,[134] the Washtenaw County Trial Court (22nd Circuit Court) is located in Ann Arbor at the Washtenaw County Courthouse on Main Street. Seven judges serve on the court.[135] The 15th Michigan district court, which serves only the city itself, is located within the Ann Arbor Justice Center, immediately next to city hall. The U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Michigan and Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit are also located in downtown Ann Arbor, at the federal building on Liberty Street.[136][137][138][139]
In the Michigan Legislature, the city is split between Districts 23, 33, 47, and 48 in the Michigan House of Representatives. In the Michigan Senate, Ann Arbor is covered by Districts 14 and 15.[140] Ann Arbor is within the 6th congressional district, currently represented by Debbie Dingell.[141]
A photograph of the front facade of the Washtenaw County Administration BuildingWashtenaw County Administration BuildingAnn Arbor has a council–manager form of government, with 11 voting members: the mayor and 10 city council members. Each of the city\'s five wards are represented by two council members, with the mayor elected at-large during midterm years. Half of the council members are elected in midterm years, with the other in general election years.[142] The mayor is the presiding officer of the city council and has the power to appoint all council committee members as well as board and commission members, with the approval of the city council. The current mayor of Ann Arbor is Christopher Taylor, a Democrat who was elected as mayor in 2014.[143] Day-to-day city operations are managed by a city administrator chosen by the city council.[144] While Democrats, as of 2024, hold the mayorship and all ten council seats,[145] Ann Arbor has two major political factions.[146] A major source of this local divide is differences in views on the city\'s growth.[147]
Current Ann Arbor City Council Members[148]Ward Council member Party Term1 Lisa Disch Democrat 2024–20281 Cynthia Harrison Democrat 2022–20262 Jon Mallek Democrat 2024–20282 Chris Watson Democrat 2022–20263 Travis Radina Democrat 2024–20283 Ayesha Ghazi Edwin Democrat 2022–20264 Jen Eyer Democrat 2024–20284 Dharma Akmon Democrat 2022–20265 Erica Briggs Democrat 2024–20285 Jenn Cornell Democrat 2022–2026EducationPrimary and secondary educationMain article: Ann Arbor Public SchoolsSee captionSt. Thomas the Apostle Catholic SchoolPublic schools are part of the Ann Arbor Public Schools (AAPS) district. AAPS has one of the country\'s leading music programs. For the 2021–2022 school year, 17,070 students were enrolled in the Ann Arbor Public Schools.[149] Notable schools include Pioneer, Huron, Skyline, Community high schools, Pathways to Success Academic Campus, and Ann Arbor Open School.[150] The district has a preschool center with both free and tuition-based programs for preschoolers in the district.[151] The University High School, a \"demonstration school\" with teachers drawn from the University of Michigan\'s education program, was part of the school system from 1924 to 1968.[152]
Ann Arbor is home to several private schools,[153] including Clonlara School, Michigan Islamic Academy, and Greenhills School, a prep school. The city is also home to several charter schools such as Central Academy (Michigan) (PreK–12) of the Global Educational Excellence (GEE) charter school company.[154]
Higher educationThe University of Michigan dominates the city of Ann Arbor, providing the city with its college town character. University buildings are located in the center of the city and the campus is directly adjacent to the State Street and South University downtown areas.[155]
Other local colleges and universities include Concordia University Ann Arbor, a Lutheran liberal-arts institution. In 2000, the Ave Maria School of Law, a Roman Catholic law school established by Domino\'s Pizza founder Tom Monaghan, opened in northeastern Ann Arbor; the school moved to Ave Maria, Florida in 2009,[156] and the Thomas M. Cooley Law School acquired the former Ave Maria buildings for use as a branch campus.[157][158][159]
MediaThe Ann Arbor News, owned by the Michigan-based Booth Newspapers chain, was the major newspaper serving Ann Arbor and the rest of Washtenaw County. The newspaper ended its 174-year daily print run in 2009 due to economic difficulties, and began producing two printed editions a week under the name AnnArbor.com.[160] Ann Arbor has been said to be the first significant city to lose its only daily paper.[161] The publication resumed using its former name in 2013, and also produces a daily digital edition named MLive.com.[162] Another Ann Arbor-based publication that has ceased production was the Ann Arbor Paper, a free monthly.[163] The Ann Arbor Chronicle, an online newspaper, covered local news, including meetings of the library board, county commission, and DDA until September 3, 2014.[164]
Current publications in the city include the Ann Arbor Journal (A2 Journal), a weekly community newspaper;[165] the Ann Arbor Observer, a free monthly local magazine; and Current, a free entertainment-focused alt-weekly.[166] The Ann Arbor Business Review covers local business in the area. Car and Driver[167] magazine and Automobile Magazine[168] are also based in Ann Arbor. The University of Michigan is served by many student publications, including the independent Michigan Daily student newspaper, which reports on local, state, and regional issues in addition to campus news.[169]
Four major AM radio stations based in or near Ann Arbor are WAAM 1600, a conservative news and talk station; WLBY 1290, a business news and talk station; WDEO 990, Catholic radio; and WTKA 1050, which is primarily a sports station. The city\'s FM stations include NPR affiliate WUOM 91.7; country station WWWW 102.9; and adult-alternative station WQKL 107.1. Freeform station WCBN-FM 88.3 is a local community radio/college radio station operated by the students of the University of Michigan featuring noncommercial, eclectic music and public-affairs programming.[170] The city is also served by public and commercial radio broadcasters in Ypsilanti, the Lansing/Jackson area, Detroit, Windsor, and Toledo.[171]
Ann Arbor is part of the Detroit television market. WPXD channel 31, the owned-and-operated Detroit outlet of the ION Television network, is licensed to the city. Until its sign-off on August 31, 2017, WHTV channel 18, a MyNetworkTV-affiliated station for the Lansing market, was broadcast from a transmitter in Lyndon Township, west of Ann Arbor. Community Television Network (CTN) is a city-provided cable television channel with production facilities open to city residents and nonprofit organizations.[172] Detroit and Toledo-area radio and television stations also serve Ann Arbor, and stations from Lansing and Windsor, Ontario, can be seen in parts of the captionBarton DamSee captionArgo DamThe University of Michigan Health System (UMHS) includes University Hospital, C.S. Mott Children\'s Hospital and Women\'s Hospital in its core complex. UMHS also operates out-patient clinics and facilities throughout the city. The area\'s other major medical centers include a large facility operated by the Department of Veterans Affairs in Ann Arbor,[173] and Saint Joseph Mercy Hospital in nearby Superior Township.[174]
UtilitiesThe city provides sewage disposal and water supply services, with water coming from the Huron River and groundwater sources. There are two water-treatment plants, one main and three outlying reservoirs, four pump stations, and two water towers. These facilities serve the city, which is divided into five water districts. The city\'s water department also operates four dams along the Huron River—Argo, Barton, Geddes, and Superior—of which Barton and Superior provide hydroelectric power.[175][176]
The city also offers waste management services, with Recycle Ann Arbor handling recycling service.[177] Other utilities are provided by private entities. Electrical power and gas are provided by DTE Energy. AT&T Inc. is the primary wired telephone service provider for the area. Cable TV service is primarily provided by Comcast.[178]
A plume of the industrial solvent dioxane is migrating under the city from the contaminated Gelman Sciences, Inc. property on the westside of Ann Arbor.[179] As of 2021, the average measured concentration was found to be 201.19 ppb, with the maximum being 6.000 ppm.[note 3] While the United States Environmental Protection Agency does not impose a federal limit on the level of the contaminant allowed in drinking water, the World Health Organization suggests a limit of 35 ppb. The Gelman plume is a potential threat to one of the City of Ann Arbor\'s drinking water sources, the Huron River, which flows through downtown Ann Arbor.[181]
TransportationMain article: Transportation in Ann Arbor, MichiganSee captionBlake Transit CenterThe streets in downtown Ann Arbor conform to a grid pattern, though this pattern is less common in the surrounding areas. Major roads branch out from the downtown district to the highways surrounding the city. The city is belted by three freeways: Interstate 94 (I-94), which runs along the southern and western portion of the city; U.S. Highway 23 (US 23), which primarily runs along the eastern edge of Ann Arbor; and M-14, which runs along the northern edge of the city. Other nearby highways include US 12 (Michigan Avenue), M-17 (Washtenaw Avenue), and M-153 (Ford Road). Several of the major surface arteries lead to the I-94/M-14 interchange in the west, US 23 in the east, and the city\'s southern areas.[182] The Washtenaw County Border-to-Border Trail connects Ann Arbor to Ypsilanti, mostly along the Huron River, for pedestrians, bicycles and other non-motorized transportation.[183][184]
The Ann Arbor Area Transportation Authority (AAATA), which brands itself as \"TheRide\", operates public bus services throughout the city and nearby Ypsilanti. The AAATA operates the Blake Transit Center on Fourth Ave. in downtown Ann Arbor, and the Ypsilanti Transit Center. A separate zero-fare bus service operates within and between the University of Michigan campuses. In 2019, 36% of trips in Ann Arbor were taken by walking, biking or transit.[185]
Since April 2012, the \"AirRide\" connects to Detroit Metro Airport a dozen times a day.[186] The Michigan Flyer, a service operated by Indian Trails, cooperates with AAATA for their AirRide and additionally offers bus service to East Lansing.[187] Greyhound Lines provides intercity bus service.[188] Megabus has direct service to Chicago, Illinois,[189] while a bus service is provided by Amtrak Thruway for rail passengers making connections to services in East Lansing and Toledo, Ohio.[190]
Amtrak, which provides service to the city at the Ann Arbor Train Station, operates the Wolverine train between Chicago and Pontiac via Detroit. The present-day train station neighbors the city\'s old Michigan Central Depot, which was renovated as a restaurant in 1970.[191] Ann Arbor Municipal Airport is a small, city-run general aviation airport located south of I-94.[192]
Sister citiesAnn Arbor has eight sister cities:[193][194]
Germany Tübingen, Baden-Württemberg, Germany (since 1965) The schools in Ann Arbor and Tübingen have regular exchanges.[195]Belize Belize City, Belize (since 1967)JapanHikone, Shiga, Japan (since 1969) The schools in Ann Arbor and Hikone have regular exchanges.[196][197]Canada Peterborough, Ontario, Canada (since 1983)Nicaragua Juigalpa, Chontales, Nicaragua (since 1986)Senegal Dakar, Senegal (since 1997)Cuba Remedios, Cuba (since 2003)Ukraine Lubny, Ukraine (since 2024)[198]
Sigma Nu (ΣΝ) is an undergraduate college fraternity founded at the Virginia Military Institute in 1869. Since its founding, Sigma Nu has chartered more than 279 chapters across the United States and Canada and has initiated more than 235,000 members.[1] It is part of the Lexington Triad, a trio of national fraternities that were founded at colleges in Lexington, Virginia. The fraternity is a member of the North American Interfraternity Conference.
HistorySigma Nu was founded by James Frank Hopkins, Greenfield Quarles, and James McIlvaine Riley shortly after Hopkins witnessed what he considered a hazing ritual by upperclassmen at the Virginia Military Institute.
Greenfield QuarlesGreenfield QuarlesJames McIlvaine RileyJames McIlvaine RileyThe founders of Sigma NuJames Frank Hopkins, Greenfield Quarles, and James McIlvaine Riley enrolled at the Virginia Military Institute in 1866. Hopkins entered the institute at the age of 21 and was, at the time, one of the oldest cadets entering the institute. Both Hopkins and Quarles had served in the American Civil War as Confederate soldiers.[2][3][4]
At this time, many secret societies were being formed on the VMI campus. In Hopkins\' third year at VMI, he joined the Masonic Lodge in Lexington. The masons inspired him to create a similar organization at VMI.[5] Hopkins shared his ideas with Quarles and Riley, and in October 1868, the three came together on a limestone rock on the edge of the VMI parade ground to form the Legion of Honor.[6] The three founders would go on to bring others into the Legion of Honor over the rest of the year. On January 1, 1869, the founders, along with the rest of the members of the Legion of Honor, held their first official meeting as Sigma Nu.[6][7] The fraternity\'s existence remained secret until the founders publicly announced their new society on January 1, 1869.[8]
Hopkins designed the fraternity\'s badge, which stands mostly unchanged from its original form. The badge was introduced in the spring of 1869.[9] Early members, Edward Arthur and Linton Buck, both wrote the original Constitution and Law, respectively. Some conflict arose because Arthur had been a member of the Honduras Emigrant Society and had included some influences from that organization in the constitution. Buck felt these influences should be removed. His revision became the first Law of Sigma Nu.[9][10]
There were many efforts in the beginning years to establish chapters at other schools. By 1883, Alpha chapter chartered eleven additional chapters, of which only three survived.[11] One of the many factors was the anti-fraternity sentiment during this time.[12][13] Kappa chapter was established in 1881 at North Georgia College & State University, giving the fraternity an important member, John Alexander Howard. Howard suggested that the fraternity drop the use of Roman numerals for chapter designation in favor of using a Greek letter designation.[11] He is also responsible for the creation of The Delta, Sigma Nu\'s fraternity magazine, which was first published in April 1883.[14] The name The Delta originated from the location of the three active chapters of Sigma Nu forming a Delta.[11]
Howard\'s editorials in The Delta inspired Isaac P. Robison, founder of Lambda chapter, to propose a convention for the national fraternity. On July 10, 1884, Sigma Nu\'s first convention was held in the Maxwell House Hotel in Nashville, Tennessee.[15][16] The first national headquarters for the fraternity was established in Indianapolis in 1915. It relocated to Lexington, Virginia in 1958.[3] Additional wings were added to the headquarters building in 1969 and 1994 for Sigma Nu\'s 100th and 125th anniversaries.
In 1909, Sigma Nu was a founding member of the North American Interfraternity Conference.[17]
Symbols and traditionsThis first chapter of Sigma Nu chose as its motto nulli secundus, a Latin phrase meaning \"second to none.\"[9] The fraternity\'s values are summarized by the principles or pillars of love, honor, and truth. Because of its military heritage, Sigma Nu retains many military trappings in its chapter ranks and traditions, and places importance on the concept of personal honor. The fraternity\'s mission statement is:
To develop ethical leaders inspired by the principles of Love, Honor, and Truth.To foster the personal growth of each man\'s mind, heart, and character.To perpetuate lifelong friendships and commitment to the Fraternity.[18]Sigma Nu\'s colors are black, white, and gold.[14] Its flower is the white rose, specifically the wild English \'Floribunda.[14] Its song is \"The White Star of Sigma Nu\".[14] Its publication is The Delta.[19]
Its gold badge was designed by Hopkins, one of the fraternity\'s founders.[14] It has a round center with a golden coiled serpent on a black enamel background.[14] From the center are five arms that feature a pair of crossed swords and a single letter on a background of white enamel; the letters collectively spell the Greek letters ΣΝΕΤΤ.[14] Its pledge pin looks like the center of the member\'s badge.[14]
ActivitiesThe fraternity sponsors various programming including ethical leadership development through its LEAD program[20] and philanthropic events through its Helping Hand Initiative.[21] It recruits new members using its Values Based Recruitment method.[22]
College of ChaptersThe Sigma Nu College of Chapters is a three-day training program held annually. College of Chapters is designed for collegiate chapter Commanders, and the program emphasizes chapter management, leadership, core competencies, and networking. The curriculum focuses on best practices and is presented by fraternity staff, alumni volunteers, and advisers.[23]
LEADThe LEAD (Leadership, Ethics, Achievement, Development) Program is designed to be a four-year educational and development curriculum for its collegiate members. In 1988, Sigma Nu created the LEAD Program.[20][24] Since its launch in 1988 the Program has been updated twice, once in 1997 and again in 2008. The 2008 updates included the online version of the LEAD Program that currently exists today.[24] The program trains candidates in general life skills, with an emphasis on alcohol use disorder awareness.[25]
AwardsSigma Nu has several awards that are presented to chapters. The Rock Chapter Award is the highest award a Sigma Nu chapter can receive.[26] The LEAD Chapter of the Year award is for the LEAD program.[26][27] The Gallaher Cup is awarded to the chapter with the highest GPA.[26]
PhilanthropyIn 1945, William Yates (University of Pennsylvania) inspired the formation of the \"Sigma Nu Inc., Educational Foundation\". Its name was changed to the \"Sigma Nu Educational Foundation, Inc.\" The foundation assists collegiate members with financial aid supplements and the fraternity in the development of a leadership program.[28]Sigma Nu chapter house in Eugene, Oregon, 1906
Stanford University chapter house
University of Nebraska–Lincoln chapter houseSigma Nu Gamma Chapter houseUniversity of Colorado chapter house, 2002ChaptersMain article: List of Sigma Nu chapters and coloniesSigma Nu has some 160 active chapters in colleges and universities throughout the United States and Canada.[1]
Governance structureGrand ChapterThe Grand Chapter of Sigma Nu is a four-day legislative convention where representatives of the fraternity\'s collegiate and alumni chapters and grand officers meet to determine new legislation and operational direction of the Fraternity for the next biennium. The Grand Chapter meets every two years. The Grand Chapter body is composed of two voting representatives from each collegiate chapter of Sigma Nu Fraternity. Laws are discussed and voted on by the collegiate representatives in Robert\'s Rules of Order style business meeting conducted by the national regent of the fraternity.
The LawThe Law is a three-part document, including the fraternity\'s constitution, statutes, and trial code. It sets membership requirements, standards of conduct, and the framework for the operation of all entities of the fraternity, including collegiate chapters. The Law is designed to allow for autonomy and self-governance in collegiate chapters. It may be amended by the Grand Chapter to accommodate the changing needs of Sigma Nu\'s membership.[29] The first edition of the Law was formally adopted at Sigma Nu\'s first convention in 1884.[29][30]
High CouncilThe High Council serves as the board of directors of Sigma Nu Fraternity, Inc., and is elected by the Grand Chapter. It serves as the governing arm of the general fraternity during the period between Grand Chapters. Governance of the High Council is relegated to those duties especially prescribed by The Law. In cases where The Law prescribes no special duty, the High Council shall act on those situations through interpretation of The Law.[29] There are five roles on the High Council: the regent, who acts as the national president and chairman of the board of Sigma Nu for a term of two years; the regent-elect, the grand treasurer; the vice-regents, appointed members of the board; and the collegiate grand councilmen, who serve as collegiate representatives to the High Council.[29]
Notable membersMain article: List of Sigma Nu membersSince the founding of Sigma Nu, it has initiated over 235,000 members.[1]
Controversies and member misconductThe fraternity began debating allowing non-white and Jewish members shortly after the Supreme Court of the United States desegregated schools in 1954.[31] In 1964, following a failed civil rights amendment to the Sigma Nu\'s constitution, the Dartmouth College chapter seceded from the fraternity in protest. The organization did not allow non-white members until the late 1960s.[32][33] The Dartmouth chapter rejoined in 1983.[34]Members of the Upsilon chapter at the University of Texas, Austin, including actor Jon Hamm, were arrested for participating in a violent hazing in November 1990 during which pledge Mark Sanders was beaten with a paddle and a broom, led by Hamm around the fraternity house with the claw of a hammer beneath his genitals, and had his clothes set on fire. The chapter closed and Hamm completed the terms of a deferred adjudication; his charges were dismissed in 1995.[35][36]In 2004, nine members of Fresno State University were arrested for kidnapping after playing a prank on their vice president. Other students witnessed the prank and called the police because they thought it was a real abduction.[37][38]In 2010, a fraternity member at Arizona State University stabbed a fellow member when he tried to throw him into a pool.[39]Sigma Nu suspended all chapter events at University of North Carolina Wilmington after a fight broke out at a party it hosted in February 2014, resulting in an East Carolina University student driving with a U.S. Marine on his hood. The driver hit a tree, killing the Marine; he was arrested for DWI and felony death by vehicle.[40]Also in 2015, Sigma Nu suspended its chapter at Old Dominion University pending an investigation after they placed banners with slogans like \"Rowdy and Fun, Hope Your Baby Girl is Ready for a Good Time...\" and the story went viral.[41][42]In August 2016, a Sigma Nu member at Texas A&M University died of an illegal drug overdose in the fraternity house. Six members were arrested for possession and distribution of illegal drugs on campus such as cocaine, meth, LSD, MDMA, marijuana, heroin, and ecstasy.[43] In October 2017, the deceased member\'s father, Eugene Gridnev, instituted a wrongful death suit against the fraternity itself, as well as several of the members present during his son\'s death.[44] The lawsuit was settled out-of-court.[45]Also in October 2016, Sigma Nu suspended its chapter at University of Nevada, Reno, when a freshman pledge fell down the stairs and died after a night of excessive drinking in the fraternity house.[46]In May 2018, the fraternity at Cornell University was suspended for three years due to hazing allegations reported to the university. According to university reports, their pledges were blindfolded, dropped off in a wooded area, pressured to excessively drink alcohol, hosed down while in their underwear, and were subject to inappropriate gesturing, physical exercise, and homophobic slurs.[47][48]In December 2019, the fraternity at University of Central Florida was suspended for violating the university\'s code of conduct. A pledge was blindfolded and pressured to consume cocaine. He was also required to stay in the fraternity house for a week before being initiated. The fraternity was already under investigation for threatening to beat a man after he confronted them for randomly throwing drinks on him and others at a local bar.[49]In October 2021, the fraternity at University of Southern California was suspended following allegations of sexual assault against at least seven women.[50]In 2021, the fraternity at University of California, Santa Barbara (UCSB) was suspended after a second-year fraternity member died on an unsanctioned fraternity trip.[51] In September 2022, the fraternity chapter at UCSB closed down following financial delinquency, alcohol violations, and dishonesty with the university and national organization.[52]
In North America, fraternities and sororities (Latin: fraternitas and sororitas, \'brotherhood\' and \'sisterhood\') are social clubs at colleges and universities. They are sometimes collectively referred to as Greek life or Greek-letter organizations, as well as collegiate fraternities or collegiate sororities to differentiate them from general, non-university-based fraternal organizations and fraternal orders, friendly societies, or benefit societies.[1][2]
Generally, membership in a fraternity or sorority is obtained as an undergraduate student but continues thereafter for life by gaining alumni status. Some accept graduate students as well, some also provide honorary membership in certain circumstances.[1][2] Individual fraternities and sororities vary in organization and purpose, but most – especially the dominant form known as social fraternities and sororities – share five common elements:
SecrecySingle-sex membershipSelection of new members based on a two-part vetting and probationary process known as rushing and pledging (or orientation)Ownership and occupancy of a residential property where undergraduate members liveA set of complex identification symbols that may include Greek letters, armorial achievements, ciphers, badges, grips, hand signs, passwords, flowers, and colorsFraternities and sororities engage in philanthropic activities; host social events; provide \"finishing\" training for new members, such as instruction on etiquette, dress, and manners; and create networking opportunities for their newly graduated members. Fraternities and sororities can be tax-exempt 501(c)(7) organizations in the United States.
HistoryFurther information: History of North American fraternities and sororities and Philhellenism
Members of Phi Kappa Sigma at Washington & Jefferson College in Washington, Pennsylvania in 1872Establishment and early historyThe term fraternity is derived from the Latin word frater, which means \"brother\".[3] Similarly the term \"sorority\", is derived from the Latin word soror, meaning \"sister\".[3] However, sorority was not used in 1874, well after the establishment of the first organizations for women.[3] As a result, a fraternity can consist men, women, or a mixture of the two.[3] Members of fraternities and sororities address members of the same organization as \"brother\" in the case of fraternities or \"sister\" in the case of sororities.
The first fraternity in North America to incorporate most of the elements of modern fraternities was Phi Beta Kappa, founded at the College of William and Mary in 1775. The founding of Phi Beta Kappa followed the earlier establishment of two other secret student societies that had existed on that campus as early as 1750. In 1779, Phi Beta Kappa expanded to include chapters at Harvard and Yale. By the early 19th century, the organization transformed itself into a scholastic honor society and abandoned secrecy.[4]Representatives from different fraternities at the University of Texas at Arlington, circa 1981Social fraternitiesSee also: List of social fraternitiesIn 1825, Kappa Alpha Society, the first fraternity to retain its social characteristic, was established at Union College in Schenectady, New York. In 1827, Sigma Phi and Delta Phi were also founded at the same institution,[5] creating the Union Triad. The further birthing of Psi Upsilon (1833), Omicron Kappa Epsilon (1834), Chi Psi (1841), and Theta Delta Chi (1847) collectively established Union College as the Mother of Fraternities. The social fraternity Chi Phi, officially formed in 1854, traces its roots to a short-lived organization founded at Princeton University in Princeton, New Jersey in 1824 bearing the same name.[6]
In the 19th century, college fraternities represented the intersection between dining clubs, literary societies, and secret initiatory orders such as Freemasonry. Their early growth was widely opposed by university administrators, though the increasing influence of fraternity alumni, as well as several high-profile court cases, succeeded in largely muting opposition by the 1880s.[5] The first fraternity meeting hall or lodge seems to have been that of the Alpha Epsilon chapter of Chi Psi at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor, Michigan, in 1845, leading to a tradition in that fraternity to name its buildings \"lodges\". As fraternity membership was punishable by expulsion at many colleges at this time, the house was located deep in the woods.[7]
Social sororitiesSee also: List of social sororities and women\'s fraternities
Delta Rho sorority at Nevada State University, 1901Sororities, originally called women\'s fraternities, began to develop in 1851 with the formation of the Adelphean Society Alpha Delta Pi.[8] However, fraternity-like organizations for women didn\'t take their current form until the establishment of Pi Beta Phi in 1867 and Kappa Alpha Theta and Kappa Kappa Gamma in 1870. The term sorority was used by a professor of Latin at Syracuse University, Frank Smalley, who felt the word \"fraternity\" was inappropriate for a group of ladies.[9] The word comes from Latin soror, meaning \"sister,\" \"cousin, daughter of a father\'s brother,\" or \"female friend.\"[10][3] The first organization to use the term \"sorority\" was Gamma Phi Beta, established in 1874.[11][3]
The development of fraternities for women during this time was a major accomplishment in women\'s rights and equality. By mere existence, these organizations were defying the odds; the founding women were able to advance their organizations despite many factors working against them. The first \"women\'s fraternities\" not only had to overcome \"restrictive social customs, unequal status under the law and the underlying presumption that they were less able than men,\"[12] but at the same time had to deal with the same challenges as fraternities with college administrations.
Today, both social and multicultural sororities are present on more than 650 college campuses across the United States and Canada. The National Panhellenic Conference (NPC) serves as the umbrella organization for 26 international sororities. Founded in 1902, NPC is one of the oldest and largest women\'s membership organizations, representing more than four million women at 655 college and university campuses and 4,500 local alumni chapters in the U.S. and Canada.[13]
InternationalizationSee also: Fraternities and sororities in Canada, List of fraternities and sororities in Estonia, List of fraternities and sororities in France, Studentenverbindung, List of fraternities and sororities in the Philippines, Nations in Finnish universities, Nations in Scottish universities, and Nations in Swedish universities
Rush party at Gama Phi Beta sorority at McGill University in Montreal, 1939.
Phi Kappa Mu celebrates its 85th anniversary at the University of the PhilippinesIn 1867, the Chi Phi fraternity established its Theta chapter at the University of Edinburgh in Scotland, marking the first foray of the American social fraternity outside the borders of the United States. At the time, many students from the American South were moving to Europe to study because of the disrepair southern universities fell into during the American Civil War. One such group of Americans organized Chi Phi at Edinburgh; however, during the Theta chapter\'s existence, it initiated no non-American members. With declining American enrollment at European universities, Chi Phi at Edinburgh closed in 1870.[11]
Nine years following Chi Phi\'s abortive colonization of the University of Edinburgh, a second attempt was made to transplant the fraternity system outside the United States. In 1879, Zeta Psi established a chapter at the University of Toronto. Zeta Psi\'s success in Toronto prompted it to open a second Canadian chapter at McGill University, which it chartered in 1883. Other early foundations were Kappa Alpha Society at Toronto in 1892 and at McGill in 1899, and Alpha Delta Phi at Toronto in 1893 and at McGill in 1897.[14]
The first sorority [outside the United States], Kappa Alpha Theta, was established in Toronto in 1887. By 1927, there were 42 fraternity and sorority chapters at the University of Toronto and 23 at McGill University. A few chapters were also reported at the University of British Columbia, Carleton University, Dalhousie University, University of Manitoba, Queen\'s University, University of Western Ontario, Wilfrid Laurier University, University of Waterloo and Brock University.[14]
The arrival of the fraternity system in Asia accompanied the introduction of the American educational system in the Philippines. The first fraternities were established in the University of the Philippines. The now-defunct Patriotic and Progressive Rizal Center Academic Brotherhood (Rizal Center Fraternity), a brotherhood of Jose Rizal followers, was founded in 1913.[15] This was followed by the Rizal Center Sorority. The first Greek-letter organization and fraternity in Asia, the Upsilon Sigma Phi, was founded in 1918.[16] The first Greek-letter sorority, UP Sigma Beta Sorority, was recognized in 1932.[16]Sisters of the Sigma Delta Tau at the University of Minnesota, 1940. The sorority was founded by seven women at Cornell University who were denied membership into other sororities because they were Jewish.ReligionMain articles: Christian fraternity (fraternities and sororities), Christian sorority, and List of Jewish fraternities and sororitiesMany early fraternities referred to Christian principles or to a Supreme Being in general, as is characteristic of fraternal orders.[17] Some, such as Alpha Chi Rho (1895) and Alpha Kappa Lambda (1907), only admitted Christians,[17] while others, such as Beta Sigma Psi (1925) and Phi Kappa Theta (1959), catered to students belonging with certain denominations of Christianity, such as Lutheranism and Catholicism.[17]
Due to their exclusion from Christian fraternities in the United States, Jewish students began to establish their own fraternities in 1895 and 1920, with the first one being Zeta Beta Tau, founded in 1898.[17]
Although many of the religion-specific requirements for many fraternities and sororities have been relaxed or removed, there are some today that continue to rally around their faith as a focal point, such as Beta Upsilon Chi (1985) and Sigma Alpha Omega (1998).[17][18]
MulticulturalismSee also: Cultural interest fraternities and sororities
Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity members assist the Georgia Air National Guard during a George Floyd protest in Atlanta in June 2020Numerous Greek organizations in the past have enacted formal and informal prohibitions on pledging individuals of different races and cultural backgrounds. This began with historically White fraternities and sororities excluding African Americans due to racism. Historically Black fraternities and sororities were spearheaded thereafter in response.
Racist policies have since been abolished by the North American Interfraternity Conference, and students of various ethnicities have come together to form a council of multicultural Greek organizations. The National Multicultural Greek Council, officially formed in 1998, is a coordinating body of 19 Greek organizations, including nine fraternities, and ten sororities with cultural affiliations.[19]
The first multicultural sorority, Mu Sigma Upsilon, was established in November 1981 at Rutgers University in New Brunswick, New Jersey.[20] The formation of this Greek organization allowed for the emergence of a multicultural fraternity and sorority movement, giving birth to a multicultural movement.
Professional fraternities and sororitiesFurther information: Professional fraternities and sororitiesThe main purpose of professional fraternities and sororities is to promote the interests of a particular profession and whose membership is generally restricted to students and alumni in particular academic disciplines or industries.[21]
Service fraternities and sororitiesFurther information: Service fraternities and sororitiesThe term service fraternities and sororities, is used to describe Greek life organizations whose primary purpose is facilitate and accomplish acts of community service; this is in contrast to certain social fraternities and sororities or religious fraternities and sororities that participate in philanthropy and community service as a non-primary (secondary or tertiary) mission.[22][23][21]
Structure and organizationGender exclusivityFraternities and sororities traditionally have been single-sex organizations, with fraternities consisting exclusively of men and sororities consisting exclusively of women. In the United States, fraternities and sororities have a statutory exemption from Title IX legislation prohibiting this type of gender exclusion within student groups, and organizations such as the Fraternity and Sorority Political Action Committee lobby to maintain it.[24][25]
Since the mid-20th century, a small number of fraternities, such as Alpha Theta and Lambda Lambda Lambda, have opted to become co-educational and admit female members; however, these generally represent a minority of Greek-letter organizations and no such fraternity is currently a member of the North American Interfraternity Conference, the largest international association of fraternities.[24][25] The first coed fraternity was Pi Alpha Tau (1963–1991) at the University of Illinois at Chicago.[26]
Much more commonly, coed fraternities exist in the form of service fraternities, such as Alpha Phi Omega, Epsilon Sigma Alpha, Alpha Tau Mu and others. These organizations are similar to social fraternities and sororities, except they are coed and non-residential. Similarly, in the United States, professional fraternities, such as Alpha Kappa Psi, Delta Sigma Pi, and Phi Gamma Nu are required to be co-ed under the Title IX amendments, as are any fraternities that are not social fraternities.
In 2014, Sigma Phi Epsilon became the first fraternity in the North American Interfraternity Conference to accept transgender members, or those identifying as male, to join the social fraternity.[27] Several sororities have adjusted their policies to confirm that transgender prospective members are allowable.
Importantly, all these variants have stemmed from a process of self-determination, without challenge by other fraternities and sororities. In a bellwether case in 2016, Harvard University changed its student conduct code to bar members of single-sex groups from leading campus groups, serving as captains of sports teams, or participating in valuable academic fellowships. This is being contested vigorously in U.S. federal court by several affected fraternities and chapters of fraternities and sororities are largely self-governed by their active (student) members; however, alumni members may retain legal ownership of the fraternity or sorority\'s property through an alumni chapter or alumni corporation. All of a single fraternity or sorority\'s chapters are generally grouped in a national or international organization that sets standards, regulates insignia and ritual, publishes a journal or magazine for all of the chapters of the organization, and has the power to grant and revoke charters to chapters. These federal structures are largely governed by alumni members of the fraternity, though with some input from the active (student) members.[30][31][32]
Rushing and pledging\"Rush week\" redirects here. For other uses, see Rush week (disambiguation).See also: Sorority recruitmentBefore 1900, the expansion of fraternal housing and competition among fraternities led to increasingly aggressive recruitment among the social fraternities, which had hitherto followed the methodical process of tapping and individualized invitations that are still present among honorary and professional fraternities. In an introductory article about the nature and history of fraternal life, Baird\'s Manual of American College Fraternities indicates that the term \"Rushing\" and later, \"Rush week\" hearken to the effort to rush to meet incoming trains filled with new classmates and delegations of freshmen students, where offers were offered and lapel pins then \"spiked\" the new fellow to mark him as a new member of the fraternity which he opted to join. Baird\'s Manual further indicates that the tradition was adopted from English boarding schools, similarly jostling to recruit incoming prospects, which the aggressive fraternities found to be \"handy to imitate\". Variations of Rush Week continued to evolve, some offering immediate recruitment and some deferred until the second half of freshman year, or even into the second year. Formal recruitment on all, or virtually all, campuses continues as a defined Rush week, while many campuses and most chapters offer ongoing \"informal rush\" to welcome potential members, amounting to hundreds of thousands of new members every year.[33]
Today, most fraternities and sororities select potential members through a two-part process of vetting and probation, called rushing and pledging, respectively. During rush (recruitment), students attend designated social events, and sometimes formal interviews, hosted by the chapters of fraternities and sororities in which they have particular interests. Usually, after a potential new member has attended several such events, officers or current members meet privately to vote on whether or not to extend an invitation, known as a \"offer\", to the prospective applicant.
Those applicants who receive a offer and choose to accept it are considered to have \"pledged\" the fraternity or sorority, thus beginning the pledge period (new member period). Students participating in rush are known as \"rushees\", Potential New Members \"PNMs\", while students who have accepted a offer to a specific fraternity or sorority are known as \"new members\" or in some cases \"pledges\".[34]
A new member period may last anywhere from one weekend to several months. During this time, new members might participate in almost all aspects of the life of the fraternity or sorority, but most likely not be permitted to hold office in the organization. After the new member period, a second vote of members may sometimes be taken, often, but not always, using a blackball system. New members who pass this second vote are invited to a formal and secret ritual of initiation into the organization, advancing them to full membership.[5]
Many Greek-letter organizations give preferential consideration for pledging to candidates whose parent or sibling was a member of the same fraternity or sorority. Such prospective candidates are known as \"legacies\".[35][36]
Membership in more than one fraternity or sorority is acceptable, but only under specific Greek councils. Recently, some Greek-letter organizations have replaced the term \"pledge\" with that of \"associate member\" or \"new member\". Sigma Alpha Epsilon, in 2014, abolished pledging altogether. Potential members are now immediately initiated into the fraternity upon accepting a offer.[34][37]Alpha Sigma Phi chapter house at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign
Alpha Delta Phi chapter house at Cornell UniversityResidencyMain article: North American fraternity and sorority housingUnique among most campus organizations, members of social fraternities and sororities usually congregate and sometimes live together in large houses, generally privately owned by the organization or by the organization\'s alumni association. Often, fraternities and sorority houses, called lodges or chapter houses, are located on the same street or in close quarters within the same neighborhood, which may be colloquially known as \"Greek row\", \"frat row\", or \"sorority row\". Often, chapter houses are uniquely designed, highly elaborate, and very expensive to operate and maintain.[38]
Chapter houses became more common in the late 19th century, when organizations began to grow in size and wealthy alumni were able to help purchase or build houses.[3] The first purpose-built residential chapter house is believed to have been Alpha Delta Phi\'s chapter at Cornell University, with groundbreaking dated to 1878.[39] Alpha Tau Omega became the first fraternity to own a residential house in the South when, in 1880, its chapter at the University of the South acquired one.[40] Chapters of many fraternities followed suit, purchasing and, less often, building them with the support of alumni. Phi Sigma Kappa\'s chapter home at Cornell, completed in 1902, is the oldest such house still occupied by its fraternal builders.[41]
Usually, the more expensive the house, the higher the annual organization dues. The features and size of chapter houses play a major role in chapters remaining competitive in recruiting and retaining members on many campuses.[38] At some, often small colleges, fraternities and sororities occupy a specific section of university-owned housing provided to them. Some fraternities and sororities are un-housed, with members providing their own accommodations. In many of these cases, the fraternity or sorority owns or rents a non-residential clubhouse on or off campus to use for meetings and other activities.
Secrecy and ritualMost fraternities and sororities are secret societies. While the identity of members or officers is rarely concealed, fraternities and sororities initiate members following the pledge period through sometimes elaborate private rituals, frequently drawn or adopted from Masonic ritual practice or that of the Greek mysteries.[5][3]
After an initiation ritual, the organization\'s secret motto, secret purpose, and secret identification signs, such as handshakes and passwords, are usually revealed to its new members. Some fraternities also teach initiates an identity search device used to confirm fellow fraternity members.[42]A model chapter room of Kappa SigmaJulian Hawthorne, the son of Nathaniel Hawthorne, wrote in his posthumously published Memoirs of his initiation into Delta Kappa Epsilon:[43][44][45]
I was initiated into a college secret society—a couple of hours of grotesque and good-humored rodomontade and horseplay, in which I cooperated as in a kind of pleasant nightmare, confident, even when branded with a red-hot iron or doused head-over-heels in boiling oil, that it would come out all right. The neophyte is effectively blindfolded during the proceedings, and at last, still sightless, I was led down flights of steps into a silent crypt and helped into a coffin, where I was to stay until the Resurrection...Thus it was that just as my father passed from this earth, I was lying in a coffin during my initiation into Delta Kappa Epsilon.
Meetings and rituals are sometimes conducted in what is known as a chapter room located inside the fraternity\'s house. Entry into chapter rooms is often prohibited to all but the initiated. In one extreme case, the response of firefighters to a blaze signaled by an automated alarm at the Sigma Phi chapter house at the University of Wisconsin in 2003 was hampered in part because fraternity members refused to disclose to emergency responders the location of the hidden chapter room, where the conflagration had erupted.[46]Badges of Sigma Alpha Mu (left), Delta Sigma Pi (center), and Phi Kappa Phi (right).Symbols and naming conventionsDating back to their origins in the 19th century, fraternities and sororities adopted symbolism from the ancient Greeks and Romans, chivalric traditions, and Jewish and Christian scripture learned in their classes, along with some influences of Freemasonry.[3] The names of almost all fraternities and sororities consist of a sequence of two or three Greek letters, for instance, Delta Delta Delta, Sigma Chi, Chi Omega, or Psi Upsilon.[3] There are a few exceptions to this general rule, as in the case of the fraternities Triangle and Acacia.[5] In many cases, the Greek letters that are selected stand for Greek words or the organization\'s motto.
Most fraternities and sororities adopted the chivalric tradition of heraldry, including a crest, coat of arms, colors, and motto.[47][3] They may also have official flags, symbols, flowers, jewels, mascots, patron saints, or a Greek divinity. Many European fraternities also have zirkels, an identifying monogram.[48]
The fraternity or sorority badge is an enduring symbol of membership in a Greek letter organization, and often incorporates the organization\'s Greek letters and various symbols.
Membership profileDemographicsAs of 2011, there were approximately nine million student and alumni members of fraternities and sororities in North America, or about three percent of the total population.[49][50] Roughly 750,000 undergraduate students belong to 12,000 fraternity and sorority chapters on 800 campuses in Canada and the United States.[49][50]
A 2007 survey conducted by Princeton University found that White and higher-income Princeton students are much more likely than other Princeton students to be in fraternities and sororities.[51] Senior surveys from the classes of 2009 and 2010 showed that 77 percent of sorority members and 73 percent of fraternity members were White.[51]President Ronald Reagan was initiated into Tau Kappa Epsilon at Eureka College in Eureka, Illinois and his successor, George H. W. Bush, was a member of Delta Kappa Epsilon at Yale University.Notable fraternity and sorority membersSince 1900, 63 percent of members of the United States cabinet have been members of fraternities and sororities, and the current chief executive officers of five of the ten largest Fortune 500 companies are members of fraternities and sororities. In addition, 85 percent of all justices of the U.S. Supreme Court since 1910 have been members of fraternities. U.S. presidents since World War II who have been initiated into fraternities are George W. Bush, George H. W. Bush, Bill Clinton, Ronald Reagan, Harry S. Truman, Gerald Ford, and Franklin Roosevelt. Three Prime Ministers of Canada have been members of fraternities.[52][53][54][55][56]
In 2013, about 25 percent of members of the U.S. House of Representatives and 40 percent of members of the U.S. Senate were members of fraternities or sororities.[57]
Academic performanceStudies have found that university graduation rates are 20 percent higher among members of Greek-letter organizations than among non-members, and students who are members of fraternities and sororities typically have higher-than-average grade point averages. One reason for this may be that many chapters and colleges require members to maintain a certain academic standard.[58]
Each organization requires its members to maintain a minimum GPA to continue their membership. Fraternity and sorority members who maintain high GPAs may be invited to join notable Greek honor societies, such as Gamma Sigma Alpha and Order of Omega. Gamma Sigma Alpha acknowledges fraternity and sorority members who hold a 3.5 GPA in upper-division classes.[59] Order of Omega recognizes the top three percent of fraternity and sorority members who exemplify leadership qualities.[59] Greek honor societies provide lifetime membership with opportunities such as scholarships and networking.
Professional advancementMany fraternities and sororities provide \"finishing\" training for new members, such as instruction on etiquette, dress, and manners; and create networking opportunities for their newly graduated members. There is a high representation of former fraternity and sorority members among certain elites in the United States. Fraternity and sorority members \"are more likely to be thriving in their well-being and engaged at work than college graduates who did not go Greek,\" according to a study done by Gallup and Purdue University.[60] Not only that, but researchers at Union College studied the effects of fraternity and sorority membership on the incomes of those who participated when attending university versus those who did not, finding that those that had participated had incomes higher than their non-Greek peers by as much as 36%.[61]
Personal fulfillmentFraternities and sororities engage in philanthropic activities and host social events. A 2014 Gallup survey of 30,000 university alumni found that persons who said they had been members of Greek-letter organizations while undergraduates reported having a greater sense of purpose, as well as better social and physical well-being, than those who had not.[62]
CriticismFraternities and sororities have been criticized for practicing elitism and favoritism, discriminating against non-White students and other marginalized groups, conducting dangerous hazing rituals, and facilitating alcohol abuse and campus sexual assault including rape culture. Many colleges and universities have sought to reform or eliminate them due to these concerns, but these efforts have typically been met with intense membership and elitismFraternities and sororities have often been characterized as elitist or exclusionary associations, organized for the benefit of a largely White, upper-class membership base. Members of fraternities and sororities disproportionately come from certain socio-economic demographics.[51] Fraternities specifically have been criticized for what is perceived as their promotion of an excessively alcohol-fueled, party-focused lifestyle.
New York Times columnist Frank Bruni questioned the existence of exclusive clubs on campuses that are meant to facilitate independence, writing \"Colleges should be cultivating the kind of sensibility that makes you a better citizen of a diverse and distressingly fractious society. How is that served by retreating into an exclusionary clique of people just like you?\"[67]
Some colleges and universities have banned Greek letter organizations. The oldest ban was at Princeton University, though Princeton has now had fraternities since the 1980s.[68] Oberlin College banned \"secret societies\" (fraternities and sororities) in 1847,[69] and the prohibition continues to the present.[70] Quaker universities, such as Guilford College and Earlham College, often ban fraternities and sororities because they are seen as a violation of the Quaker principle of equality.[71][72] Brandeis University has never permitted fraternities or sororities as it maintains a policy that all student organizations have membership open to all.[73] Hamilton College did not prohibit fraternities, but to improve campus social conditions, in 1995 mandated that all students would be required to live and eat on campus; the college also bought the fraternity houses.[74]
Alcohol useOne Harvard University study found that \"4 out of 5 fraternity and sorority members are binge drinkers. In comparison, other research suggests 2 out of 5 college students overall are regular binge drinkers.\"[75] There is also a higher rate of alcohol-related deaths and injuries among fraternities, which has resulted in many lawsuits and suspensions.[76][77][78]
Drug useStudies have shown that fraternity and sorority members are more likely than the average college student to use or abuse drugs. Since the 1990s, fraternity members have experienced an increase of over 400% in the recreational use of prescription benzodiazepines like Xanax and Valium. Amphetamine use with drugs like Ritalin and Adderall is more common among fraternity members than other college students. Fraternity members also abuse amphetamines at double the rate of their non-college peers. Marijuana use is also more prevalent among fraternity and sorority members compared to college men and women not in fraternities or sororities.[79][80]
HazingSee also: Hazing in Greek letter organizations
An illustration depicting fraternity hazing from the early 20th centuryFraternities, and to a lesser extent, sororities, have been criticized for hazing, sometimes committed by active undergraduate members against their chapter\'s pledges. Common hazing practices include sleep deprivation, sensory deprivation, paddling, use of stress positions, forced runs, busy work, forced smoking, forced drinking, forced drug use, forced consumption of spoiled food, and mind games.[81][82][83][84] Rarer incidents have involved branding, enemas, urination and feces on pledges, puking, and public masturbation. Historically, hazing of pledges culminated in an event known as \"Hell Week,\" in which a week-long series of physical and mental torments are inflicted on pledges.[81][85] In its worst form, hazing has led to the injury or death of fraternity and sorority pledges or members.[81][84][86]
In the 21st century, most fraternities and sororities prohibit hazing, as do colleges and universities.[87] In addition, there are anti-hazing laws in most states, criminalizing hazing in the United States.[87] As a result, reports of hazing have led to the permanent expulsion of particular chapters of fraternities and sororities by both universities and the national fraternity or sorority and, in some cases, criminal charges.[86] At some colleges, Hell Week has evolved into Help Week, a time for community service.[81] However, suspected hazing deaths continue to be reported.[86]
In 2007, the National Anti-Hazing Hotline was set up to report incidents of hazing on college and university campuses.[88][85] Currently, 47 national fraternity and sorority organizations support the toll-free number and reporting service of the National Anti-Hazing Hotline.[88] Annually, the last week of September is considered to be National Hazing Prevention Week.[89][90]
Nepotism and networkingCritics of Greek-letter organizations assert that they create a culture of nepotism in later life, while supporters have applauded them for creating networking opportunities for members after graduation. A 2013 report by Bloomberg found that fraternity connections are influential in obtaining lucrative employment positions at top Wall Street brokerages. According to the report, recent graduates have been known to exchange the secret handshakes of their fraternities with executives whom they know are also members to obtain access to competitive appointments.[91][92]
Sexism and sexual violenceStudies show that fraternity men are three times more likely to commit rape than other men on college campuses.[93][94][95] Fraternity pledges are at a higher likelihood to commit rape or sexual assault because of the pressure to meet the hyper-masculine standards that fraternities expect of their members.[96] Overall, fraternity men are shown to have more rape-supportive attitudes than non-fraternity men.[97]
Fraternities have often been accused of fostering rape-supportive attitudes by promoting male dominance and brotherhood, and fraternity affiliation has been found to be a significant predictor of sexually predatory behavior in retrospective research.[95][98]
Attitudes towards women learned in fraternity life can perpetuate fraternity men\'s lifelong attitudes, leading to the potential to commit sexual assault and rape after college life.[99] Studies show that women in sororities are almost twice as likely to experience rape than other college women.[100][101] A research article studied campus demographics and reported rapes and found that campuses that report more rapes have more fraternity men, athletes and liquor violations.[102]
Researchers have found that in predominantly male environments, such as fraternities, athletics, and military groups, men feel pressure to meet the group\'s standard of masculinity, which may contribute to men being more accepting of sexual violence.[103] Nicholas Syrett, a professor of history at the University of Northern Colorado, has been a vocal critic of the evolution of fraternities in the 20th century. In 2011, Syrett stated that \"fraternal masculinity has, for at least 80 years, valorized athletics, alcohol abuse, and sex with women.\"[104]
Time magazine columnist Jessica Bennett has denounced fraternities as breeding \"sexism and misogyny that lasts long after college\". In her column, Bennett recounts that, while she was an undergraduate student at the University of Southern California, doormen at fraternity parties \"often ranked women on a scale of 1 to 10, with only \'sixes\' and up granted entry to a party\".[92]
To protect their fraternity\'s brotherhood, fraternity men and athletes may not confront or report sexual assault when it happens.[102] Perpetrators have often received little to no consequences for their actions.[105]
Test and homework banksIt is common for members of Greek-letter organizations to have higher-than-average GPAs; some claim that this is partly due to test and homework banks filled over the years by members of their organization. There is much backlash condemning the test and homework banks as academic racism and minority discriminationFurther information: Racism in United States college fraternities and sororitiesResearchers, such as Matthew W. Hughey, claim to have linked racism in Greek life to persons experiencing \"microaggressions\", fewer opportunities to use the networking system built into Greek life, and the use of stereotypes.[112] In response to allegedly experiencing racism and exclusion from solely or predominantly White sororities, Black, and multicultural revenge-racist anti-White groups were founded.[112] Additionally, homophobia, transphobia, antisemitism, and xenophobia are alleged issues with many college Greek systems across the – an initiated, undergraduate student member of a fraternity or sorority[121][122]Alumni, Alumna, or Alumnus – a member of a sorority or fraternity who have graduate or are no longer undergraduate student.[123][122] They are often organized as an alumni association that owns and manages the fraternity\'s or sorority\'s chapter house.An auxiliary group (also \"sweetheart\" or \"little brother/sister\" group) is an unofficial, unsanctioned partner organization to a fraternity or sorority, usually for members of the opposite sex. The two largest Greek umbrella organizations for social fraternities and sororities, the North American Interfraternity Conference and the National Panhellenic Conference, ban the formation of or discourage membership in auxiliary groups.[124][125] Some fraternities and sororities outside of these conferences also ban auxiliaries, including Phi Mu Alpha Sinfonia[126] and Sigma Alpha Iota.[127] Part of the rationale behind banning auxiliary groups is that such groups could jeopardize the host organizations\' Title IX exemptions, citing the United States Supreme Court\'s ruling in Roberts v. United States Jaycees.[125][127]Badge – a pin worn by an initiated member of a fraternity or sorority. In the 19th and early 20th century, badges were also worn as a watch fob. See also pledge pin.offer – an offer to become a pledge (see below) of a fraternity or sorority.[121]Blacklist – an official or unofficial list of people not allowed inside the house or to any events of the fraternity or sorority.Blackballed – in this context used as a definition of expelling from a community or group. This means that a person may not be accepted by any fraternity or sorority because of the negative reputation they gained at a particular group. This is usually an informal discussion made by the presidents or rush chairs of the fraternities or sororities.Chapter – a local branch or unit of a fraternity or sorority[122]Chapter room – a room inside a fraternity house, often secret or hidden, where meetings occur and where rituals are performed.[123]Colony – a newly established chapter of a national/international fraternity or sorority in the process of organization.[123]Fracket – a disposable coat worn to a fraternity party, coined from the words \"fraternity\" and \"jacket\".[128][129]Frat Boy – a member of a fraternity characterized by a way of dressing[130] and a homogeneous behavior as other members of that fraternity.International – a fraternity or sorority with two or more chapters, located in different nations[123]Legacy – a rushee who is related to a member of the same fraternity or sorority they are rushing is almost always offered a offer. Traditionally, a legacy has a parent or sibling that is a member, but some organizations have expanded on their definition of a legacy\'s relation to members.[131][132]Local – a fraternity or sorority with only one chapter.[123]National – a fraternity or sorority with two or more chapters, both of which are in different states within the same nation[123]
Omega Psi Phi members perform a step routine during the 2015 Black History Month Parade in El Paso, TexasPledge – a person who has accepted a offer from a fraternity or sorority but has not yet been initiated, sometimes also called associate member[121][122]Pledge Class – pledges who ware recruited in the same semester or cycle[122]Pledge pin – a pin worn by pledges for the duration of the pledging period. It is usually given to a pledge following a ceremony when they are first offered membership in the organization and can be worn until their initiation. With some organizations, especially those that no longer have a pledge process, it may be called a new member pin. See also badge.Potential new member – Abbreviated PNM, one who is in the process of seeking a offer.[121]Rush – the process of recruitment to a fraternity or sorority.[121]Rushee – one who is in the process of seeking a offer.[121]Step Dance or Stepping – form of traditional African American dance popularized by National Pan-Hellenic Council members as synchronized group routines. Now also performed by some multi-cultural Greek letter organizations.See alsoCollegiate secret societies in North AmericaDefunct North American collegiate sororitiesHigh school fraternities and sororitiesHonor societyOld boy networkSecret society